Presented by:

TEAM AQUIFEX
 Medicine
-Introduction to Medicine-

Medicine is the science and practice of establishing the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment,
and prevention of disease. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to
maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary
medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology
to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically
through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse
as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing
radiation, amongst others.

The main branches of medicine are:

Basic sciences of medicine:
this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical
research
Medical specialties:
sub-fields within the broad field of medicine that doctors
can focus on to become skilled in and certified in.
Interdisciplinary fields:
where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain
occasions

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 Medicine
-Introduction to Medicine-

Example of Basic Science

• Anatomy is the study of the physical structure
of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross Louis Pasteur, as portrayed in his laboratory, 1885
anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned
with microscopic structures.
• Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking
place in living organisms, especially the structure • Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their
and function of their chemical components.
• Biomechanics is the study of the structure and
function of biological systems by means of the
methods of Mechanics.
• Biostatistics is the application of statistics to
biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge
of biostatistics is essential in the planning,
evaluation, and interpretation of medical research.
It is also fundamental to epidemiology and
evidence-based medicine.
• Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses
the methods of physics and physical chemistry to
study biological systems.
• Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.
by Albert Edelfelt
• Embryology is the study of the early development
of organisms.
effect throughout the body of animals.
• Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of
disease processes, and includes, but is not limited
to, the study of epidemics.
• Genetics is the study of genes, and their role
in biological inheritance.
• Histology is the study of the structures of biological
tissues by light microscopy, electron
microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
• Immunology is the study of the immune system,
which includes the innate and adaptive immune
system in humans, for example.
• Medical physics is the study of the applications of
physics principles in medicine.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Medicine
-Introduction to Medicine-
Examples of Medical Specialties:
• Accident and emergency • Infectious diseases • Psychiatry
medicine • Internal medicine • Public health and Preventive
• Allergology • Laboratory medicine Medicine
• Anaesthetics • Maxillo-facial surgery • Radiation Oncology
• Biological hematology • Microbiology • Radiology
• Cardiology • Nephrology • Respiratory medicine
• Child psychiatry • Neuro-psychiatry • Rheumatology
• Clinical biology • Neurology • Stomatology
• Clinical chemistry • Neurosurgery • Thoracic surgery
• Clinical neurophysiology • Nuclear medicine • Tropical medicine
• Craniofacial surgery • Obstetrics and gynecology • Urology
• Dental, oral and maxillo-facial • Occupational medicine • Vascular surgery
surgery • Ophthalmology • Venereology
• Dermato-venereology • Orthopaedics
• Dermatology • Otorhinolaryngology
• Endocrinology • Paediatric surgery
• Gastro-enterologic surgery • Paediatrics
• Gastroenterology • Pathology
• General hematology • Pharmacology
• General Practice • Physical medicine and
• General surgery rehabilitation
• Geriatrics • Plastic surgery
• Immunology • Podiatric Surgery

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 Medicine
-Interdisciplinary Field-
Example of Interdisciplinary Field
• Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems
related to flying and space travel.
• Addiction medicine deals with the treatment of
addiction.
• Medical ethics deals
with ethical and moral principles that apply values
and judgments to the practice of medicine.
• Biomedical Engineering is a field dealing with the •
application of engineering principles to medical
practice.
• Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how
systems of therapeutics interact with patients.
• Conservation medicine studies the relationship
between human and animal health, and
environmental conditions. Also known as ecological
medicine, environmental medicine, or medical
geology.
• Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of
emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and
management.
ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
• Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine
derived through applying evolutionary theory.
• Forensic medicine deals with medical questions
in legal context, such as determination of the time
and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict
trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using
remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding
identification.
Gender-based medicine studies the biological and
physiological differences between the human sexes
and how that affects differences in disease.
• Hospice and Palliative Medicine is a relatively
modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with
pain and symptom relief and emotional support in
patients with terminal illnesses including cancer
and heart failure.
• Hospital medicine is the general medical care of
hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary
professional focus is hospital medicine are
called hospitalists in the United States and Canada.
The term Most Responsible Physician (MRP) or
attending physician is also used interchangeably to
describe this role.
 Medicine
-MedicalSpeciality-

Internal Medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of adult diseases.

There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine:

• Angiology/Vascular Medicine
• Cardiology
• Critical care medicine
• Endocrinology
• Gastroenterology
• Geriatrics
• Hematology
• Hepatology
• Infectious disease
• Nephrology
• Neurology
• Oncology
• Pediatrics
• Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine
• Rheumatology
• Sports Medicine

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 Medicine
-Types of Medicine-

Types of Medicine:
Liquid
The active part of the medicine is combined with a liquid to make it easier to take or
better absorbed. A liquid may also be called a ‘mixture’, ‘solution’ or ‘syrup’. Many
common liquids are now available without any added colouring or sugar.
Tablet
The active ingredient is combined with another substance and pressed into a round or
oval solid shape. There are different types of tablet. Soluble or dispersible tablets can
safely be dissolved in water.
Capsules
The active part of the medicine is contained inside a plastic shell that dissolves slowly in
the stomach. Some capsules can be taken apart so the
contents can be mixed with a favorite food. Others need to be
swallowed whole so the medicine is not absorbed until the
stomach acid breaks down the capsule shell.

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 Medicine
-Types of Medicine-

Other types of medicine include the following:

Topical medicines
These are creams, lotions or ointments that are applied directly onto the skin. They come
in tubs, bottles or tubes depending on the type of medicine. The active part of the
medicine is mixed with another substance that makes it easy to apply to the skin.
Suppositories
The active part of the medicine is combined with another substance and pressed into a
‘bullet shape’ so it can be inserted into the rectum (back passage). Suppositories must not
be swallowed.
Drops
These are often used where the active part of the medicine works best if it reaches the
affected area directly. They tend to be used for eye, ear or nose.
Inhalers
The active part of the medicine is released under pressure directly
into the lungs. Young children may need to use a ‘spacer’ device
to take the medicine properly. Inhalers can be difficult to use at first so your pharmacist
will show you how to give them.

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 Medicine
-Types of Medicine-

Injections
There are various types of injection, differing in how and where it is
injected. Subcutaneous or SC injections are given just under the surface of the skin.
Intramuscular or IM injections are given into a muscle. Intrathecal injections are given
into the fluid around the spinal cord. Intravenous or IV injections are given into a vein.
Some injections can be given at home but most are given at your doctor’s surgery (GP) or
in hospital.
Implants or patches
Some medicines are absorbed by the body through the skin, such as nicotine patches for
help in giving up smoking or contraceptive implants.
Buccal or sublingual tablets or liquids
These look similar to normal tablets or liquids but they are not swallowed. Buccal
medicines are held in the cheek so that the mouth lining absorbs the
active ingredient. Sublingual medicines work in the same way but
are put underneath the tongue. Buccal and sublingual medicines
tend only to be given in very specific circumstances.

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 Medicine
-Medicine in Biotechnology-

Red Biotechnology or Medical Biotechnology is biotechnology

applied to manufacture pharmaceuticals like enzymes, antibiotics
and vaccines, and its use for molecular diagnostic.
Medical Biotechnology is an application of biotechnology that
touches the lives of individuals every day. Both wellness and illness
have ties to biotechnology. Advances in biology over the last 20 years
have generated new insights into the causes of disease. This new level
of understanding has, in turn, created opportunities for the
development of new therapies, drugs, diagnostic tools and
research/clinical instrumentation. Medical biotechnology is one of
the fastest growing opportunities for employment in the medical
research field.

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Application of Biotechnology in Medicine
-Medical Biotechnology-

Pharmacogenomics

Gene Therapy and Diagnosis

Stem Cells

Tissue Engineering

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 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Pharmacogenomics involves designing the most effective drug therapy

and treatment strategy based on the specific genetic profile of a patient.
Different individuals react differently to the same drug or treatment. It is
hoped that genetic studies will lead to personalized drugs with greater safety
and efficacy.

5 Topics under Pharmacogenomics:

Insulin Production
Human Growth Hormone
Human Blood Clotting Factor
Gene Pill
Monoclonal Antibodies

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Insulin Production
Production of genetically engineered human insulin was one of the
first breakthroughs of biotechnology in the pharmaceutical industry.
Insulin was first produced in Escherichia coli through recombinant
DNA technology in 1978.

PRINCIPLE:- Mass production of human proteins, vaccines, etc. by

genetically modifying bacteria or viruses.

PROCESS:- The human gene for insulin is placed into

bacteria, are cultured and allowed to produce insulin which
is collected, purified and sold to diabetics worldwide.

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 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Insulin Production
Grow bacteria that make the insulin protein (fermentation)
Isolate the protein from all the other stuff that was in the fermentation
tank (purification)
Convert the insulin to its active form (processing)

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 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Human Growth Hormone

Production of human growth hormone was first done in
1979 using recombinant DNA technology.
Scientists produced human growth hormone by inserting
DNA coding for human growth hormone into a plasmid
that was implanted in Escherichia coli bacteria.
This gene that was inserted into the plasmid was created by
reverse transcription of the mRNA found in pituitary glands
to complementary DNA.
Prior to this development, human growth hormone was
extracted from the pituitary glands of cadavers, as
animal growth hormones have no therapeutic value
in humans.

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 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Human Blood Clotting Factor

Production of human clotting factors was enhanced through
recombinant DNA technology.
Human clotting factor ix was the first to be produced through
recombinant DNA technology using transgenic Chinese hamster ovary
cells in 1986.
Plasmids containing the factor IX gene, along with plasmids with a gene
that codes for resistance to methotrexate, were inserted into Chinese
hamster ovary cells via transfection.

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 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Gene Pill
1. Gene pill delivers DNA to Intestine
2. DNA is absorbed by gut cells
3. Protein drug is synthesized inside the cells
4. Protein drug is secreted into the blood

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Monoclonal Antibodies (MAB)

They are so called because they are clones of an individual parent cell.
Remember, antibodies are specific proteins that target pathogens
invading our body.

Steps in making them:

1. Human antibody genes are put into a mouse.
2. Mouse is infected causing it to make human antibody producing cells
(B-cells).
3. These cells are removed from the mouse and fused with
a tumor cell.
1. Now we have a tumor cell that is constantly producing antibodies and
more cells like itself.

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 Pharmacogenomics
-Medical Biotechnology-

Monoclonal Antibodies (MAB)

ADVANTAGES:
This technology is used primarily to fight off cancer cells as
these monoclonal antibodies can be “trained” to target
markers that show up on cancer cells.
The MAB’s will then destroy the cancer cell and go looking
for more.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
Application of Biotechnology in Medicine
-Medical Biotechnology-

Gene Therapy and Diagnosis

Stem Cells

Tissue Engineering

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Medical Biotechnology-

Gene Therapy a genetic engineering technique that may one day be

used to cure certain genetic diseases. In its simplest form, it involves the
introduction of a non-mutated gene at a random location in the
genome to cure a disease by replacing a protein that may be absent in
these individuals because of a genetic mutation. The non-mutated
gene is usually introduced into diseased cells as part of a vector
transmitted by a virus, such as an adenovirus, that can infect the host
cell and deliver the foreign DNA into the genome of the targeted cell
(Picture Shown). To date, gene therapies have been primarily
experimental procedures in humans. A few of these experimental
treatments have been successful, but the methods may be important in
the future as the factors limiting its success are resolved.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Medical Biotechnology-

This diagram shows the steps involved in curing disease with gene therapy
using an adenovirus vector.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Medical Biotechnology-

Gene therapy is the use of DNA as a pharmaceutical

agent to treat disease.
It derives its name from the idea that DNA can be used
to supplement or alter genes within an individual's cells
as a therapy to treat disease
The most common form of gene therapy involves
using DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene
to replace a mutated gene.
Gene therapy is of two types:
. 1. Somatic gene therapy
2. Germ line gene therapy

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Somatic Gene Therapy-

There is a distinction between somatic cells, those making

up almost all of the body, and germline cells, which are the
eggs and sperm and the cells that produce them. Somatic
gene therapy is the transfer of genes into the somatic cells of
the patient, such as cells of the bone marrow, and hence the
new DNA does not enter the eggs or sperm. The genes
transferred are usually normal alleles that could ‘correct’ the
mutant or disease alleles of the recipient.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-The Technique of Somatic Gene Therapy-

The technique of somatic gene therapy involves inserting a normal gene into the
appropriate cells of an individual affected with a genetic disease, thereby
permanently correcting the disorder. The picture shown outlines the simplest
methods of getting genes into the person's cells using either viruses (which carry
the human gene, in place of one of their own genes, into a cell) or liposomes
(small fat-like molecules which can carry DNA into a cell). In some cells, the gene
or genes become inserted into a chromosome in the nucleus.
The target cells might be bone marrow cells, which are easily isolated and re-
implanted. Bone marrow cells continue to divide for a person's whole life to
produce blood cells, so this approach is useful only if the gene you want to deliver
has a biological role in the blood. Delivery of a gene that has a biological role in,
say, the lungs, muscle, or liver would have to occur within those target organs. In
many cases, accessing the appropriate tissue or, if the gene is required in multiple
tissues (e.g. muscles throughout the body) ensuring it can be delivered where it is
needed, is a major problem.

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Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-The Technique of Somatic Gene Therapy-

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Somatic Gene Therapy-

In general, current efforts to treat disease by

somatic gene therapy do not pose any novel ethical
issues, provided there is proper enforcement of
informed consent in trials. There is concern,
however, about where the successful development
of techniques for germline gene therapy might
lead.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Germline Gene Therapy-

Now that in vitro fertilization – bringing eggs and sperm

together outside the prospective mother's body – is an
established technology, the possibility exists that genes
could be altered in eggs or sperm, or in a very early embryo.
The obvious advantages of germline gene therapy are that
the cells are accessible (because they are outside the body),
so gene delivery is less of a problem than it tends to be with
somatic cells; and the inserted gene (or genes) would be
present in all the cells of the person so treated because it
would be transmitted to progeny cells during growth and
development.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Germline Gene Therapy-

This might be poor business for gene therapy companies, but could be
good for people with a genetic disorder.
Until recently, there was widespread agreement that germline gene therapy
in humans should be ruled out. It is currently (early 2005) banned in the
UK. It is not possible to predict where in the genome a newly inserted gene
might end up, and this poses unknown risks of causing new mutations, or
otherwise disrupting normal gene functioning. Even if these hazards could
be removed, there are new ethical problems that could appear with serious
development of germline therapy. These include how to decide which
genetic alterations to permit. Some would clearly be aimed at correcting
harmful mutations, but others might be considered enhancements, rather
than treatments. Sometimes, it may be hard to tell the difference.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Gene Therapy for Diseases-

Gene Therapy has made important medical advances in

less than two decades. Within this short time span, it has
moved from the conceptual stage to technology
development and laboratory research to clinical
translational trials for a variety of deadly diseases. The
most notable advancements are the following:

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Gene Therapy for Genetic Disorders Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (ADA-SCID)-

Gene Therapy for Genetic Disorders Severe Combined Immune

Deficiency (ADA-SCID)

ADA-SCID is also known as the bubble boy disease.

Affected children are born without an effective immune system and will
succumb to infections outside of the bubble without bone marrow
transplantation from matched donors.
The therapeutic gene called ADA was introduced into the bone marrow
cells of such patients in the laboratory, followed by transplantation of the
genetically corrected cells back to the same patients.
The immune system was reconstituted in all six treated patients without
noticeable side effects, who now live normal lives with their families without
the need for further treatment.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Gene Therapy for Genetic Disorders Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (ADA-SCID)-

Chronic Granulomatous Disorder (CGD)

CGD is a genetic disease in the immune system that leads
to the patients' inability to fight off bacterial and fungal
infections that can be fatal.
Using similar technologies as in the ADA-SCID trial,
investigators in Germany treated two patients with this
disease, whose reconstituted immune systems have since
been able to provide them with full protection against
microbial infections for at least two years

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Gene Therapy for Genetic Disorders Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (ADA-SCID)-

Hemophilia
Patients born with Hemophilia are not able to induce
blood clots and suffer from external and internal
bleeding that can be life threatening.
The therapeutic gene was introduced into the liver of
patients, who then acquired the ability to have normal
blood clotting time.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Gene Therapy for Acquired Diseases-

Multiple gene therapy strategies have been developed to

treat a wide variety of acquired diseases like:
Cancer
Parkinson's Disease
Huntington's Disease
Influenza
HIV
Hepatitis

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Genetic Testing and Prenatal Diagnosis-

Genetic testing involves the direct examination of DNA sequences. A

scientist scans, by any number of methods, a patient’s DNA for mutated
sequences. Genetic testing can be used to:
• Diagnose a disease.
• Confirm a diagnosis.
• Provide information about the course of a disease.
• Confirm the existence of a disease.
• Predict the risk of future development of a disease in otherwise
healthy individuals or their children.
• Identify carriers (unaffected individuals who are heterozygous for a
recessive disease gene).
• Perform prenatal diagnostic screening.
• Perform newborn screening.

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 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Genetic Testing and Prenatal Diagnosis-

Consultations with human geneticists and genetic counselors are an

important first step in genetic testing. Will most likely prescribe some sort
of prenatal screening. Prenatal screening (also known as prenatal
diagnosis or prenatal testing) is the testing for diseases or conditions in a
fetus or embryo before it is born. Methods may involve amniocentesis or
chorionic villus sampling to remove fetal cells. DNA can be isolated from
these cells and analyzed. If the mutation that results in the phenotype is
known, that specific base can be analyzed, either through restriction
fragment length polymorphism analysis or, more likely, through PCR and
DNA sequence analysis. As it is the baby’s DNA that is being analyzed, the
analysis will determine if the developing baby will have
the mutation and develop the phenotype, or not have the
mutation. Parents can then be informed of the probability
of the baby developing the disease.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Gene Therapy and Diagnosis
-Genetic Testing and Prenatal Diagnosis-

In human genetics, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PIGD) is

genetic analysis performed on embryos prior to implantation. PIGD is
considered an alternative to prenatal diagnosis. Its main advantage is
that it avoids selective pregnancy termination, as the method makes it
highly likely that the baby will be free of the disease in question. In
PIGD, in vitro fertilization is used to obtain embryos for analysis. DNA
is isolated from developing embryos prior to implantation, and specific
genetic loci are screened for mutations, usually using PCR based
analysis. Embryos that lack the specific mutation can then be implanted
into the mother, thereby guaranteeing that the developing baby will not
have the specific mutation analyzed for (and thus not have the disease
associated with that mutation).

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
Application of Biotechnology in Medicine
-Medical Biotechnology-

Stem Cells

Tissue Engineering

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Stem Cells
-Medical Biotechnology-

A stem cell is a cell that has the potential to become any

cell type in the human body.
Everyone has stem cells, but they are very hard to access.
The easiest place to get stem cells is from an embryo.
Stem cells are introduced into a damaged area of the
body where, under the right conditions, will replace the
damaged area.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Stem Cells
-Medical Biotechnology-
Principles
Stem cells are
introduced into a
damaged area of the
body where, under the
right conditions, will
replace the damaged
area
ѳ T E A M
Application Process
The main are where Often time stems cells
stem cells have proven are grown in the lab first
their worth is in the to ensure the right
bone marrow conditions then placed
transplants, replacing into a sick person
damaged heart tissues
after a heart attack and
replacing the damaged
nerve tissue which gives
hope to anyone who
had a spinal cord injury
A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Stem Cells
-Medical Biotechnology-

Stem Cells Sources:

• Embryonic Stem Cells
• Infant and Adult Stem Cells
-Present in small numbers in:
o Bone Marrow
o Peripheral Blood
o Skin Epithelium
o Umbilical Cord Blood
o Dental pulp of Infant’s teeth
-May be obtained by reprogramming somatic cells
o Introduction to retroviruses carrying
reprogramming genes into fibro blasts

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
Application of Biotechnology in Medicine
-Medical Biotechnology-

Tissue Engineering

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Tissue Engineering
-Medical Biotechnology-

A form of regenerative medicine, tissue

engineering is the creation of human tissue
outside the body for later replacement.
Usually occurs on a tissue scaffold, but can be
grown on/in other organisms

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 Tissue Engineering
-Medical Biotechnology-

The technique to grow an ear follows the steps

1) taking a tiny piece of cartilage tissue,
2) dissolving away the white springy tissue to collect the
actual cells inside (the cells are microscopic and trapped
inside the white tissue called matrix)
3) expanding the number of cells by various methods in the
lab
4) placing that increased volume of cells on or in mold that
have a shape of an ear
5) implanting the new ear onto the patient.

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 Tissue Engineering
-Medical Biotechnology-

Tissue engineers have created artificial skin, cartilage

and bone marrow.
Current projects being undertaken include creating an
artificial liver, pancreas and bladder.
We are far from replacing a whole organ, but just
looking for “refurbishing” our slightly used ones at the
moment.

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Health
Care
 Health Care
Biotechnology contributes much towards the growing public and
global health needs. It has revolutionized mankind since its
existence. It provides effective diagnostics, prevention and
treatment measures including production of novel drugs and
recombinant vaccines . It gives effective drug delivery approaches,
new methods for therapeutics, nutritionally enriched genetically
modified crops and efficient methods for environmental cleanup.
Health, life quality and expectancy of life have been increased
worldwide through the services provided by biotechnology .
Parasitic and infectious diseases like Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS) and tuberculosis (TB) have been diagnosed
rapidly at relatively low cost. Molecular diagnostic tools including
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), recombinant antigens and
monoclonal antibodies have been used for this purpose.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care

Healthcare:
A wide range of biological products of human healthcare
including polypeptides, proteins, growth factors, hormones,
enzymes, vaccines, immuno-regulators, antibodies, etc. can be
produced through biotechnology.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care
-Human Proteins and Hormones-

Healthcare:
1. Human Proteins and
Hormones:
There are many human
proteins which have long
been believed or known to
have therapeutic potential
and their increased
production has been achieved
by using recombinant DNA
technology (Fig. 25.1).

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care
-Human Proteins and Hormones-

Healthcare:
Different workers also synthesized complementary DNA from RNA of rat pancreas
with the help of reverse transcriptase which was inserted into pBR 322 plasmid in the
middle of the gene for penicillinase. The plasmid also contained the structural genes
for pro-insulin. The hybrid protein synthesized in the bacterial cell was penicillinase +
pro-insulin from which insulin could be separated by trypsin.
Production of interferon took a vital position when human leucocyte interferon was
engineered by yeast cells. A DNA sequence coding for human leucocyte interferon was
attached to the yeast alcohol dehydrogenase gene in a plasmid and introduced into
cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The first human peptide hormone synthesized in a bacterial cell was somatostatin,
which is one of a group of hormones secreted by hypothalamus, controls the release of
several hormones from the pituitary.
The synthetic gene has been inserted into the plasmid, expression vector was
constructed from the plasmid pBR 322, to which was added the control region and
most of the β-galactosidase gene from the bacterial lac operon; and the gene was
inserted next to β-galactosidase.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care
-Human Proteins and Hormones-

Healthcare:
After the plasmid was
introduced into the cells of
the bacterium E. coli, the hor-
mone was synthesized as a
short peptide tail at the end
of the enzyme
(Fig. 25.2).

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care
-Human Proteins and Hormones-

Healthcare:
With the advent of techniques of recombinant DNA
and gene cloning, several other human hormones are being
produced on a commercial scale by isolating specific DNA
sequences coding for those proteins/hormones. This is likely
to enable clinical application and improve economic
provision for their utility in several deficiencies.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care
-Molecular Farming for Healthcare Products (Vaccine, Antibody)-

2. Molecular Farming for Healthcare Products (Vaccine,

Antibody):
Transgenic plants can be used as ‘factories’ for production of
specialty chemicals and pharmaceuticals like sugars, fatty acids,
wax materials as well as antibodies, edible vaccines. The progress
is so far reaching that human antibody production through
plant seeds has been achieved.
The method involves the introduction of heavy and light
chains of immunoglobulin genes into microbial vectors. In the
next step, these are introduced into the leaf cells of two plants
and cultured in vitro for regeneration of the plants. The plants-
one containing heavy and the other with light chain are then
hybridized.

ѳ T E A M A Q U I F E X ѳ
 Health Care
-Molecular Farming for Healthcare Products (Vaccine, Antibody)-

The hybrid brings light and heavy chains together, to form

the complete immunoglobulin (IgA + IgB) in the seeds. This
hybrid plant can be utilized for large scale production of seeds
containing antibody proteins. Even antibodies presumed to
be effective against cancer have been secured in tobacco
seeds. The method is thus a synthesis of recombinant DNA,
in vitro technique and conventional hybridization.
Hepatitis B surface antigen is produced in tobacco, rabies
virus glycoprotein is produced in tomato, cholera toxin P-
subunit is being produced in potato and tobacco. Transgenic
plants are being used as a source of antibodies which provide
passive immunization.

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One of the recent discoveries in the area of plant biotechnology is the

development of oral vaccine utilizing plant systems. The principle
involves, the development of transgenic plants, containing subunits of
toxic virus sequences or enterotoxin genes of bacteria like E. coli or Vibrio
cholerae.
The oral administration of potato or tobacco transgenic tissues led to the
development of immunoglobulin G and A antibodies. As such, oral
administration of plant tissues for production of antibodies in the system
is, in effect, a vaccination-the application of vaccine being oral. Such
recombinant vaccines may prove to be a cheaper substitute for expensive
vaccination, both in terms of production and administration.

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Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are

glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells (white blood
cells). They act as a critical part of the immune response by
specifically recognizing and binding to particular antigens,
such as bacteria or viruses, and aiding in their destruction.
Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, comma-shaped
bacterium. The bacterium's natural habitat is brackish or
saltwater. Some strains of V. cholerae cause the
disease cholera. V. cholerae is a facultative anaerobe and has
a flagellum at one cell pole as well as pili.

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Rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG) is a trimeric and surface-exposed viral coat protein that has
been shown to interact with the murine p75 neurotrophin receptor.
The p75 neurotrophin receptor is expressed by adult mouse dentate progenitor cells and
regulates neuronal and non-neuronal cell genesis
Hepatitis A signs and symptoms typically don't appear until you've had the virus for a few
weeks. But not everyone with hepatitis A develops them. If you do, hepatitis signs and
symptoms can include:
• Fatigue
• Sudden nausea and vomiting
• Abdominal pain or discomfort, especially on the upper right side beneath your lower ribs
(by your liver)
• Clay-colored bowel movements
• Loss of appetite
• Low-grade fever
• Dark urine
• Joint pain
• Yellowing of the skin and the whites of your eyes (jaundice)
• Intense itching

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Hepatitis B is an infection of your liver. It can cause scarring of the organ, liver
failure, and cancer. It can be fatal if it isn’t treated.
It’s spread when people come in contact with the blood, open sores, or body
fluids of someone who has the hepatitis B virus.
It's serious, but if you get the disease as an adult, it shouldn’t last a long time. Your
body fights it off within a few months, and you’re immune for the rest of your life.
That means you can't get it again. But if you get it at birth, it’ unlikely to go away.
• Hepatitis C is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis C virus: the virus can cause
both acute and chronic hepatitis, ranging in severity from a mild illness lasting
a few weeks to a serious, lifelong illness.
• The hepatitis C virus is a bloodborne virus and the most common modes of
infection are through exposure to small quantities of blood. This may happen
through injection drug use, unsafe injection practices, unsafe health care, and
the transfusion of unscreened blood and blood products.
• Globally, an estimated 71 million people have chronic hepatitis C infection.

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• A significant number of those who are chronically infected will

develop cirrhosis or liver cancer.
• Approximately 399 000 people die each year from hepatitis C, mostly
from cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.
• Antiviral medicines can cure more than 95% of persons with hepatitis
C infection, thereby reducing the risk of death from liver cancer and
cirrhosis, but access to diagnosis and treatment is low.
• There is currently no vaccine for hepatitis C; however research in this
area is ongoing.

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-Vaccines-

1. Traditional Vaccination- Strategies use

weakened or inactive forms of microorgansms to
mount the initial immune response.
2. Modern Vaccination- Use the genes of
microorgnisms cloned into vectors to mass
produce the desired antigen.

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-Vaccines-

The principle for the use of vaccines is very simple bacause they mainly
stimulate the patient’s immune system against the infectious agents
like viruses or bacteria without causing any disease itself. This vaccines
include:
• Inactivated Vaccines
• Toxoid Vaccines
• Live Attenuated Vaccines
• Conjugate Vaccines
• Recombinant Vector Vaccines
• Subunit Vaccines
• DNA Vaccines

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Inactivated Vaccines
used the killed version of the germ that causes a disease.
Live Attenuated Vaccines
used a weakened (or attenuated) form of the germ that causes a disease.
Toxoid Vaccines
Use a toxin (harmful product) made by the germ that causes a disease.
Conjugate Vaccine, Recombinant Vector Vaccines, Subunit Vaccines
use specific pieces of the germ – like its protein, sugar, or capsid (a casing
around the germ)
Recombinant Vector Vaccines
act like a natural infection, so they’re especially good at teaching the immune
system how to fight germs.
DNA Vaccines
are easy and inexpensive to make – and they produce strong, long-term
immunity.

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-Biological Techniques-

Vaccines
The principle for the use of vaccines is very simple
because they mainly stimulate the patient’s immune
system against the infectious agents like viruses or bacteria
without causing any disease itself. These vaccines include
inactivated vaccines, toxoid vaccines, live attenuated
vaccines, conjugate vaccines, recombinant vector
vaccines, subunit vaccines and DNA vaccines.

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-Biological Techniques-

Vaccines
Inactivated vaccines
Inactivated vaccines use the killed version of the germ
that causes a disease.
They are used to protect against Polio (IPV), Hepatitis A
Live attenuated vaccines
Live vaccines use a weakened (or attenuated) form of the
germ that causes a disease.
They are used to protect against Measles, mumps,
Rubella, Chickenpox, Influenza

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MOLECULAR DIAGNOSTICS
Molecular diagnostic tools have helped in
overcoming diseases such as Malaria, Tuberculosis
and AIDS which cause nearly 40% deaths each year.
Molecular diagnostics was being ranked by the
specific panel in University of Toronto as the most
ideal set of technologies for inproving the health
status. Biotechnology is based on following
diagnostic techniques: PCR, Monoclonal antibodies
and mocroarrays.

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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Was originally developed in 1983 by the
American biochemist Kary Mullis. Was used in
molecular biology to make many copies of small
sections of a DNA or a gene.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Used to treat many diseases, including some types of
cancer.
Microarrays
A tool used to determine whether the DNA from a
particular individual contains a mutation in genes.
It can also be used to study the extent to which
certain genes are turned on or off in cells and tissues.

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