Chapter SIX

Motivation
Concepts

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What Is Motivation?

Direction

Intensity Persistence

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 What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal

Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries

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 Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming
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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs Self and self-actualization
needs
Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
E X H I B I T 6–1

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 Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all
needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

Individuals therefore
must move up the Maslow Application
hierarchy in order.
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!

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 Having Little Ambition

Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers as…

Avoiding Responsibility

Self-Directed

Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers as…

Accepting Responsibility
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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
not opposites of the same thing!
Hygiene
Factors Separate Constructs Motivators
– Hygiene Factors— •Achievement
•Salary Extrinsic and Related to
Dissatisfaction •Responsibility
•Work
Conditions – Motivation Factors— •Growth
•Company Intrinsic and Related to
Satisfaction
Policies

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Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events

on the job that led to extreme Factors characterizing
job dissatisfaction events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright E X H I B I T 6–2
© 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
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 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 6–3

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 David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to The desire for friendly
achieve in relation to a set and close personal
of standards, to strive to relationships
succeed

Need for Power Bottom Line

The need to make others Individuals have
behave in a way that they different levels of needs
would not have behaved in each of these areas,
otherwise and those levels will
drive their behavior.

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 Matching High Achievers and Jobs

E X H I B I T 6–4

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 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had
been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to
decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to
jobs that are neither extremely
dull nor extremely interesting. Hint: For this theory,
think about how fun it is
to read in the summer,
but once reading is
assigned to you for a
grade, you don’t want
to do it!
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What Would Herzberg Say? What Would
Maslow Say?

E X H I B I T 6–5

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 Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with

self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

But, the relationship between goals and performance

will depend on:
•Goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•National culture

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 Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs

Management By Objectives Programs

• Company wide goals and objectives
• Goals aligned at all levels
• Based on Goal Setting Theory

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 What Is MBO?

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress

Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback

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 Cascading of Objectives

E X H I B I T 6–1

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 Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No
(qualified)

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 Why MBOs Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities

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 Self-Efficacy

•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a

task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be
achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self-esteem, which is:

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves

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 Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting

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Four Ways of Increasing Self-efficacy (Bandura)

1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal

Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and

Galatea Effects

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 Reinforcement Theory

Argues that behavior is a function of its

consequences

Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing
(controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

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 Equity Theory

Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any
inequities

Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside

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 Equity Theory (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 6–8

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 Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)

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 Equity Theory (cont’d)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than
equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less,
but do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower
quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities
of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded
employees.

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 Justice and Equity Theory

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 Three Types of Justice
Distributive Justice Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the Perceived fairness of the
outcome (the final distribution) process used to determine
the outcome (the final
“Who got what?”
distribution)
“How was who gets what
decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is
treated with dignity and
respect.
“Was I treated well?”
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 Expectancy Theory

Ethical Values and

Behaviors of Leaders

Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation
will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
• If they perform, they will be rewarded and
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.

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Chapter Check-up: Motivation

Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each

morning saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t
have to be here, huh?” Knowing this, which
theory gives us insight as to why Elizabeth
may not be motivated at work?

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Chapter Check-up: Motivation

Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X

manager, as she/he assumes employees

don’t like work and/or want to be there.

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 Chapter Check-up: Motivation

If you study really hard and

only get a B on an exam, but
your classmate barely studies
at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why
you feel less motivated to go
to class?

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 Chapter Check-up: Motivation
What theory would say that this man, who knows
he works hard and is performing well, will be
motivated by a gym membership for being a high
performer?

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 Chapter Check-up: Motivation

Expectancy Theory
Would a gym membership be considered a
motivator or hygiene factor, according to
Herzberg? Discuss with a classmate.

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 Putting It All Together

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