CHAPTER 4

AC Machinery Fundamentals
Summary:
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
2. The Rotating Magnetic Field
3. Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution on AC Machines
4. Induced Voltage in AC Machines
5. Induced Torque in an AC Machines
The Electric Power System, in very general terms,
is made up of
Generators,
Transformers,
Transmission and distribution lines, and
Loads.
Essentially all electric energy is generated in a
rotating machine, the synchronous generator,
and most of it is consumed by electric motors.
Various configurations result and are classified generally by the
type of electrical system to which the machine is connected:

Direct current (dc) machines or

Alternating current (ac) machines.

Machines with a dc supply are further divided into permanent

magnet and wound field types, as shown in Figure.

Figure: Direct Current Machine Classifications

Several variations of Machines that have ac are shown in Figure

FIGURE: Alternating Current Machine Classifications

FIGURE: Drive System
The electric machine may operate as a motor or as a generator.
Only the direction of energy transfer is affected.

FIGURE: Four-Quadrant Operation

 AC Machines

Synchronous Induction Machines

Machines

Magnetic field current is Field current is supplied

supplied by a separate by magnetic induction
dc power source (transformer action)
into their field windings.

The field circuits are located

on their rotors.
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
The figure below shows a simple rotating loop in a uniform magnetic field.
(a) is the front view and (b) is the view of the coil. The rotating part is
called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the stator.

This case in not representative of real ac machines (flux in real ac

machines is not constant in either magnitude or direction)
The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
If the rotor (loop) is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop. To
determine the magnitude and shape, examine the phasors below:

To determine the total voltage induced etot on the loop, examine each
segment of the loop separately and sum all the resulting voltages. The
voltage on each segment is given by equation
eind = (v x B) . l
1. Segment ab
The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation, while the
magnetic field B points to the right. The quantity v x B points into the
page, which is the same direction as segment ab. Thus, the induced
voltage on this segment is:
eba = (v x B) . l
= vBl sin θab into the page
2. Segment bc
In the first half of this segment, the quantity v x B points into the page, and
in the second half of this segment, the quantity v x B points out of the page.
Since the length l is in the plane of the page, v x B is perpendicular to l for
both portions of the segment. Thus,

ecb = 0
3. Segment cd
The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation, while B points
to the right. The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the same
direction as segment cd. Thus,
ecd = (v x B) . l
= vBl sin θcd out of the page
4. Segment da
same as segment bc, v x B is perpendicular to l. Thus,
eda = 0
Total induced voltage on the loop
eind = eba + ecb + edc + ead
= vBl sin θab + vBl sin θcd
= 2 vBL sinθ
since θab = 180º - θcd and sin θ = sin (180º - θ )
Alternative way to express eind:
If the loop is rotating at a constant angular velocity ω, then the angle θ of
the loop will increase linearly with time.

θ = ωt
also, the tangential velocity v of the edges of the loop is:

v= r ω
where r is the radius from axis of rotation out to the edge of the loop and
ω is the angular velocity of the loop. Hence,

eind = 2r ωBl sin ωt

since area, A = 2rl,

eind = ABω sin ωt

Finally, since maximum flux through the loop occurs when the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic flux density lines, so

φmax = AB

eind = φmaxω sin ωt

From here we may conclude that the induced voltage is dependent

upon:
Flux level (the B component)
Speed of Rotation (the v component)
Machine Constants (the l component and machine materials)
 True, Reactive, and Apparent Power
These three types of power -- true, reactive, and apparent -- relate to
one another in trigonometric form. We call this the power triangle:

Power triangle relating apparent power to true power and reactive power.
 The apparent power is the vector sum of real and reactive power.
Real power (P)
Reactive power (Q)
Complex power (S)
Apparent Power (|S|)
Understanding the relationship between these three quantities lies at
the heart of understanding power engineering. The mathematical
relationship among them can be represented by vectors or expressed
using complex numbers, S = P + jQ (where j is the imaginary unit).
Reactive power
“Reactive power (vars) is required to maintain the
voltage to deliver active power (watts) through
transmission lines. Motor loads and other loads require
reactive power to convert the flow of electrons into
useful work. When there is not enough reactive power,
the voltage sags down and it is not possible to push the
power demanded by loads through the lines.”
In a simple alternating current (AC) circuit consisting of a source and
a linear load, both the current and voltage are sinusoidal. If the load is
purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their polarity at the same
time. At every instant the product of voltage and current is positive,
indicating that the direction of energy flow does not reverse. In this
case, only real power flows.

If the load is purely reactive, then the voltage and current are 90°
degrees out of phase. For half of each cycle, the product of voltage and
current is positive, but on the other half of the cycle, the product is
negative, indicating that exactly as much energy flows toward the load
as flows back. There is no net energy flow over one cycle. In this case,
only reactive power flows—no net transfer of energy to the load occurs.
Practical loads have resistance, inductance, and capacitance, so
both real and reactive power will flow to real loads.
Apparent power is the product of the root-mean-square voltage and
current. Engineers care about apparent power, because even though
the current associated with reactive power does no work at the load, it
heats wires. Conductors, transformers and generators must be sized to
carry the total current, not just the current that does useful work.
If a capacitor and an inductor are placed in parallel, then the currents
flowing through the inductor and the capacitor tend to cancel out rather
than adding.
Conventionally, capacitors are considered to generate reactive power
and inductors to consume it.
This is the fundamental mechanism for controlling the power factor in
electric power transmission; capacitors (or inductors) are inserted in a
circuit to partially cancel reactive power of the load.
Figure: Basic components of a thermal generating unit.
Figure: Basic scheme of protection b) relay and CB.
Figure: Single line representation of power system.
Figure: Typical Power distribution scheme.