THE STRUCTURE

AND FUNCTION OF
CENTRAL AND
PERIPHERAL
HORMON
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS

• The endocrine glands are the organs of the

endocrine system
• They produce and secrete (release)
hormone
• They are located all over your body
HYPOPHYSIS GLAND
 The hypophsis gland is a roundish organ that lies
beneath the hypothalamus.
Hypophysis is the master gland that regulates all other
endocrine glands.
It is a small oval structure of 1 cm in diameter and 0,5
to 1 gram in weight.
 Hypophysis has 3 parts :
1. Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
2. Intermediate lobe
3. Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
Each lobe of hypophysis gland produces certain hormones
1. Anterior lobe
• Growth hormone
• Prolactin : to stimulate milk production after giving birth
• ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) : to stimulate the
adrenal gland
• TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) : to stimulate the
thyroid gland
• FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) : to stimulate the
ovaries and testes
• LH (luteinizing hormone) : during the menstrual cycle it
signal ovulation
2. Intermediate lobe
• Melanocyt-stimulating hormone : to control skin
pigmentation
3. Posterior lobe
• ADH (antidiuretic hormone) : to increase
absorption of water into the blood by kidneys
• Oxytocin : to contract the uterus during
childbirth and stimulate milk production
THYROID GLAND
 Thyroid gland is the butterfly-shaped organ
that situated in the neck in front of the larynx
and trachea.
Thyroid gland consists of two lobes, each lobe
is about 4 cm long, 2,5 cm wide, and 2 cm
thick.
The thyroid gland realeases thyroid hormones
(T4 and T3) and calcitonin.
Thyroid hormones is amino acid based
hormone that contain iodine, it has function
to increase metabolic rate and produce
energy, also help in metabolism of protein, fat.
Calcitonin has function to reduce blood
calcium level.
The thyroid’s hormones regulate vital body
functions, including:
• Breathing
• Heart rate
• Central and peripheral nervous systems
• Body weight
• Muscle strength
• Body temperature
• Cholesterol levels
PARATHYROID GLAND
• The parathyroid gland is secretory tissue in
charge of regulating the level of calcium in our
cells.Thyroid and parathyroids as viewed from the
back of the neck.
• The parathyroid glands are small, yellowish-brown,
ovoid structures, usually lying between the
posterior lobar borders of the thyroid gland and
its capsule .They are commonly 6 mm long, 3-4
mm across, and 1-2 mm from back to front, each
weighing about 50 mg. Usually there are two on
each side, superior and inferior.
FUNCTION
• The parathyroid gland’s main role is in secreting
hormone PTH. PTH (or parathyroid hormone)
acts by raising the levels of calcium in the blood.
This is accomplished by PTH’s ability to do three
things. First, PTH can stimulate bone breakdown,
which inherently releases calcium from the stores
held within the bone. Second, PTH can also
increase the reabsorption of calcium from food,
and third, increase the kidneys’ retention of
calcium that would otherwise be lost to urine.
• This tight control of blood calcium levels earns
the parathyroid gland’s status as a kind of
thermostat. When the blood’s calcium becomes
too low, the body will release more PTH which
will bring the calcium levels back to normal. In
contrast, when calcium levels are too high, the
parathyroid gland will stop releasing PTH.
Maintenance of proper calcium levels goes a long
way. A calcium balance will benefit the heart, the
kidneys, the nervous system, and the bones. Low
calcium levels can lead to heart, bone, and neural
disease.
ADRENAL GLAND
• The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the
body in the retroperitoneum, above and slightly medial
to the kidneys. In humans, the right adrenal gland is
pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar or
crescent shaped and somewhat larger.The adrenal
glands measure approximately 3.0 cm in width, 5.0 cm
in length, and up to 1.0 cm in thickness.Their combined
weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams.
The glands are yellowish in color.
• The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule
and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the
kidneys. A weak septum (wall) of connective tissue
separates the glands from the kidneys.The adrenal
glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are
attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal
fascia.
• The outermost layer of the adrenal gland is called the
adrenal cortex, while the inner layer is named the
adrenal medulla. Besides having physical differences
that give them a distinct appearance, they release
hormones independently of each other. In fact, the
cortex contains zones of different cell types starting
with the outermost “shell” or capsule, followed by
“zones” named the zona glomerulosa, zona
fasciculate, and the zona reticularis. This division
facilitates some versatility. The medulla will secrete
epinephrine in response to emotional or physical
stress, while the outer adrenal cortex will make
steroids and metabolic hormones like aldosterone
and cortisol. However, it is safe to say that there is a
lot of overlap between their functions.
Adrenal Cortex Zones:
• Zone Glomerulosa: Secretes Mineralcorticoids
(i.e. cortisol)
• Zone Fasiculata: Secretes Glucocorticoids
• Zone Reticularis: Secretes Androgens
The adrenal gland is supplied by three arteries:
the superior suprarenal artery, a branch of the
inferior phrenic artery, and the middle suprarenal
artery which directly branches off of the
abdominal aorta. As for the nerve supply, the
adrenal glands are innervated by the sympathetic
thoracic spinal cord fibers.
FUNCTION

the adrenal glands produce hormones that help the body

control blood sugar, burn protein and fat, react to stressors
like a major illness or injury, and regulate blood pressure.
Everyday roles of the adrenal glands:
• Via aldosterone, the adrenal gland allows our kidneys to
regulate blood pressure via salt and water exchange
between the kidneys and our surrounding blood vessels. In
the absence of aldosterone, the kidney will lose lots of salt
to urine which will draw water from our vessels and
remove it from our system. This will most certainly lead to
dehydration.
• Via cortisol, the body is not only able to respond to stress
in potentially life-saving circumstances, but it will also help
us regulate our body’s metabolism by initiating glucose
production and by circulating fatty acids and amino acids to
our cells.
• Via adrenal androgens, the adrenal gland helps create
differences between the sexes by initiating the development
of our sex organs and secondary traits.
THYMUS GLAND
• Thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system
• Thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located
anatomically in front of the heart and behind the sternum.
• Each lobe can be divided into a central medulla and
peeipheral cortex which is surrounded by an outer
capsule
• Thymus produce and secrete thymosin
FUNCTION

• Helping the body protect against autoimmunity, which is occurs

when the immune system turns againts itself.
• Plays a vital role in the lymphatic system (your body’s defence
network)
• Protects the body from certain threats, including viruses and
infections
PINEAL GLAND
• The pineal gland is a midline brain structure that is
unpaired. The gland is reddish-gray and about the size
of a grain of rice (5–8 mm) in humans.

• The human pineal gland grows in size until about 1–2

years of age, remaining stable thereafter, although its
weight increases gradually from puberty onwards.
• The primary function of the pineal gland is to produce
melatonin.
• Melatonin has various functions in the central nervous
system, the most important of which is to help modulate
sleep patterns.
• Melatonin production is stimulated by darkness and
inhibited by light
GONADOTROPIN
• The control of FSH and LH secretion from the
pituitary gonadotrophs is principally by the
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), also called
LH-releasing hormone (LHRH). It is a peptide
hormone synthesized from the hypothalamus
• Gonadotropins are any hormones that stimulate
the gonads, or sex glands, to carry out their
reproductive or endocrine functions. In males,
these glands are the testes, and in females the
ovaries.
• Following puberty, more LH than FSH is secreted. During
the menstrual cycle there is a dramatic increase in the
serum concentrations of both hormones at the time of
ovulation, and the secretion of both hormones increases
10- to 15-fold in postmenopausal women.
• FSH stimulates the synthesis of estrogens and the
maturation of cells lining the spherical egg-containing
structures known as Graafian follicles.
• In men, FSH stimulates the development of spermatozoa,
in large part by acting on special cells in the testes called
Sertoli cells. LH stimulates the secretion of androgen
(male) hormones by specialized cells in the testes called
Leydig cells