Water

• Central to evolution of civilization

– The Nile was the lifeline of the Egyptian civilization.
– The Indus Valley civilization flourished on the banks of the
Indus river.

 There is no aspect of our life that is not touched by water.

Water is one of the clear signs of prosperity, health, serenity,
beauty, artistry, purity and many other attributes.

 “the vehicleof nature” (“vetturale di natura”).

-Leonardo Da Vinci
 Born : April 15, 1452 Vinci, Italy, near Florence
 Died May 2, 1519 (aged 67) Amboise, France
 Water
Whosoever wishes to investigate medicine properly should –
consider the water that the inhabitants use – for water contributes
much to health
Hippocrates (460 – 354 BC)

The world is thirsty, because we are hungry

-World water day-2012
 Some Water Facts
• Global consumption of water is doubling every year
• More than half of the world’s hospital beds are filled with people
suffering from disease caused by water related illness
• Every year, more people die from the consequences of unsafe water
than from all forms of violence, including war (3.4 million)
• Every 8 seconds, a child dies from a water related disease
• Available fresh water = <1 % of all the water on earth
• Currently 33 countries face water scarcity. By 2025 it is estimated
that 2/3 of the population will be living in water stressed areas
• More than on billion people drink unsafe water.
• More than 2 billion don’t have adequate sanitation
 Water/Wastewater Treatment
• Fundamental objectives:
– To prevent pollution and thereby protect the
environment
– More importantly, protecting public health by
safeguarding supplies and preventing the spread of
water-born diseases

Safe disposal of human excreta is a prerequisite for

the supply of safe drinking water
 Treatment Methods
• Unit operations
– Methods of treatment in which the
application of physical forces
involved
– Examples : Grit chamber;
sedimentation tank
• Removal of floatables, rags, grit
and grease from wastewater
• Unit Processes
– Methods of treatment in which the
application of biological and
chemical reactions
– Examples: activated sludge
processes; ion exchange,
coagulation-flocculation
 Unit operations and process used to remove constituents found in
water
Constituents Unit operations or processes

Suspended solids Sedimentation; chemical precipitation;

filtration
Hardness Softening; ion exchange; membrane
filtration
Iron and manganese Aeration; adsorption; membrane filtration;
advanced oxidation
Arsenic, fluoride and heavy metals Adsorption; ion exchange; membrane
filtration, chemical precipitations
Pesticides Adsorption; membrane filtration; photo-
catalysis
Pathogens Disinfection – chlorination, ozonation, UV
treatment
Colloidal and dissolved solids Chemical precipitation; adsorption,
membrane filtration; ion-exchange
Undesirable gases/Odors Aeration; advanced oxidation
 Important Milestones in the History Of Water
Purification (1800–2007)
Year Milestone

1804 Setup of world's first city-wide municipal water treatment plant

(Scotland, sand-filter technology)
1810 Discovery of chlorine as a disinfectant (H. Davy)
1879 Formulation of Germ Theory (L. Pasteur)
1902 Use of chlorine as a disinfectant in drinking water supply
(calcium hypochlorite, Belgium)
1906 Use of ozone as a disinfectant (France)
1908 Use of chlorine as a disinfectant in municipal supply, New Jersey
1914 Federal regulation of drinking water quality (USPHS)
1916 Use of UV treatment in municipal supplies
1935 Discovery of synthetic ion exchange resin (B. A. Adams, E. L. Holmes)
1948 Nobel Prize to Paul Hermann Muller (insecticidal properties of DDT)
1959 Discovery of synthetic reverse osmosis membrane
(S. Yuster, S. Loeb, S. Sourirajan)
1962 Silent Spring published, first report on harmful effects of DDT (R. Carson)
1965 World's first commercial RO plant launched
1974 Reports on carcinogenic by-products of disinfection with chlorine
Formulation of Safe Drinking Water Act (USEPA)
1975 Development of carbon block for drinking water purification
1994 Report on use of zerovalent iron for degradation of halogenated organics
(R. W. Gillham, S. F. O'Hannesin)
1997 Report on use of zerovalent iron nanoparticles for degradation of
halogenated organics (C-B. Wang, W.-X. Zhang)
1998 Drinking Water Directive applied in EU
2000 Adoption of Millennium Declaration during the UN Millennium
Summit(UN Millennium Development Goals)

2004Stockholm Convention, banning the use of persistent organic pollutants

…….. Plastic bann in VIT campus

 Typical Process Flow Sheet for Conventional Water
Treatment

Chlorine
Lime Soda ash Chlorine addition
addition

Influent
Aeration Softening Filtration Disinfection

sludge Backwash water, To distribution

sludge system

Typical flow diagram showing the treatment of

groundwater
 Chlorine addition alum polymers Chlorine addition

Raw
water Presedimenta Coagulation Filtration Adsorption-
-tion GAC
sludge Backwash water
decanted, sludge Disinfection
sludge

Chlorine storage
addition

To distribution
system

Typical flow diagram showing the treatment of turbid

surface water with organics
 Population Estimation
Population Estimation:

The design period for future population should be such that the design does not
become outdated in the near future or overburdens the present population. The
design period may be 2 or 3 decades.
1) Arithmetical Increase Method:
Here we assume that the actual increase per decade is constant. Usually an average of
last three decades is taken. This method is suitable for old towns and for a rapidly
growing town it gives a lower figure.
2) Geometrical Increase Method:
Here we assume that the percentage increase from decade to decade is constant. An
average percentage increase in last three decades is taken and added to present
population. This is suitable for a rapidly growing city; otherwise it gives a high figure.
3) Incremental Increase Method:
To overcome the deficit of the first method, the incremental increase is also taken
into account. This is more suited for a town which is rapidly but steadily growing.
Population: (Present population) + (Average increase per decade)*n + (Incremental
increase per decade)*n
 Design Period

• Typical design period – 20-30 years

• Factors to be kept in view while fixing design period.
– Funds available for the completion of the work
– Life of the structural material used in the water
supply scheme
– Ideally the design period should be nearly equal to
the life of material used in the water supply works
– Anticipated expansion rate of the town
 Population Forecast and Water Demand

• Population estimates
1. Arithmetic method
• Based on the hypothesis that the rate of increase is
constant

dp / dt  Ka
P – population
t= time, year
Ka = arithmetic growth rate constant

pt  p o  k a t
• Arithmetic growth – linear growth pattern
• Problem 1: A mid size city recorded
populations of 113,000 and 129,000 in the
April 1980 and April 1990 census, respectively.
(A) Estimate the population in April 2000 by
arithmetic method
• 2. Geometric increase method
– Percentage increase in population from decade to
decade in constant
If the present population is P and the percentage
growth is ‘kg’, the population at the end of n decade
will be:

P = Po+Po (Kg/100) xn
• Problem 2: A mid size city recorded
populations of 113,000 and 129,000 in the
April 1980 and April 1990 census, respectively.
Estimate the population (A) in April 2000 and (B) in
April 2010 by geometric growth rate method
• Population estimates
– Exponential method
• Based on the hypothesis that the rate of increase is
proportional to population

dp
 kp p
dt
P – population
t= time, year
Kp = geometric growth rate constant

ln p t  ln p 2  k p t
OR

p t  p 2 e kpt
Exponential Growth
• Problem 3
– A mid size city recorded populations of 113,000 and
129,000 in the April 1990 and April 1980 census,
respectively.
– Estimate the population in April 2000 and (B) April
2010 by exponential method
• Population estimates contd.
3. Declining growth method
This is a decreasing rate of increase on the basis
that the growth rate is a function of its population
deficit
dp
 k d ( p s  p)
dt
Ps – saturation population, assume value
t= time, year
Kd = declining growth rate constant

k dt
p t  p o  ( p s  p 0 )(1  e )
• Problem 2
– A mid size city recorded populations of 113,000
and 129,000 in the April 1990 and April 1980
census, respectively.
– Estimate the population in April 2000 and (B) April
2010 by Declining growth method
Assume a saturation population of 200,000
• Population estimates contd.
4. Logistic curve method
- the logistic curve fitting method is used for
modeling population trends with an S- shape for
large population , or nation for long term
prediction E

D
C dP rP( p s  p)
Point of 
Population

inflexion dt Ps
B

A
time
• Logistic curve form (Pierre Verhulst)
Ps
P a  bt
1 e McLean
2 p0 p1 p 2  p ( p0  p 2 )
2
Ps  1

p0 p 2  p12

( p s  p0 )
a  ln ‘n’ is the time
p0 interval between
the successive
1 p 0 ( p s  p1 ) censuses
b  ln
n p1 ( p s  p 0 )
• Problem 5
• Following is the population of a city as noted from the census
department
Year Population
1990 35,000
2000 78,000
2010 1,15,000

Determine (a) saturation population (b) the expected

population in 2020

( Note: Δt – time period beyond the base year Po)

Problem 6
Following is the population of a city as noted from the census department.
Determine the expected population in 2015 by arithmetic, geometric and
incremental increase methods.

Sr No. Year Population Increase % Increase Incremental

Increase

1 1945 25000 ------- ------- -------

2 1955 33000 8000 32% -------
3 1965 45000 12000 36% 4000
4 1975 60000 15000 33% 3000
5 1985 80000 20000 33% 5000
6 1995 100000 20000 25% ------
5 Decades 75000 160% 12000
Total Average 15000 32% 2400

Expected population in 2015 100000 + (2*15000) = 130000 -------------------Arithmetic

100000 + (2*0.32*100000) = 164000 ---------------Geometric
100000 + (15000 + 2400)*2 = 134800 ----------incremental increase
 Problems

P1: The following is the population data of a city,

available from past census records. Estimate the
population of the city in 2021 by
a. Arithmetical increase method
b. Geometrical increase method
c. Incremental increase method

Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Population 35468 34953 43165 43349 59066
(thousands)
P2: In a town , it has been decided to provide 200
liters per head per day in 21 st century. Estimate
the domestic water requirements of this town in
the year 2021 by projecting of the town by the
geometric increase method and incremental
increase method from the data given below
Year 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Populatio 5.41 5.56 5.78 7.13 8.65 14.27 19.49 24.69 35.85 38.43 43.44
n (lakhs)