Attachment

FLUID DYNAMICS- Fluids in Motion
This section discusses the analysis of fluid in motion - fluid

dynamics.
The motion of fluids can be predicted in the same way as the
motion of solids are predicted using the fundamental laws of physics
together with the physical properties of the fluid
Classification of fluid flow

• There are many different types of fluid flow, although they may
not be readily apparent
• One of the first steps in investigating a problem involving moving
fluids is to define the type of flow that you are dealing with
• This gives an idea of which equations can be legitimately be
applied to the problem.
• This is to avoid applying wrong equations to wrong situations
uA
t
Laminar flow: if you were to put a tracer and watch it flow,
you will see that it doesn’t disperse. It is usually associated with
slow moving, viscous fluids. In laminar flow the motion of the fluid
particles is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe wall.Example is flow of water through an aquifer
Turbulent flow: if you were to a tracer and watch it flow, you

will see that it disperses and it is not uniform. It is usually
associated with much faster and chaotic flow. Mixing is very
significant in turbulent flow, in which fluid particles move
haphazardly in all directions. It is therefore impossible to trace
motion of individual particles in turbulent flow. A good example is
water flowing in a mountain
The Reynolds number is usually used to determine whether flow is

laminar, transitional or turbulent.
• After conducting experiments Reynolds argued that fluid flow is
mainly influenced by viscosity (μ), density () and diameter of pipe
(d).
• These factors (μ,,d) were later combined with the velocity(V) of
the fluid to form a dimensionless group called the Reynolds number,
R.
For flow in circular pipes

When R < 2000 – laminar flow
R > 4000 – Turbulent flow
A region of instability exists at the transition stage between these
two flow regimes.(2000 ≤ Re ≤ 4000)
Worked Example
• A pipe of diameter 0.1 m carries water at the rate of 0.025m3/s.
Taking the density of water as 1000 kg/m3 and its dynamic viscosity
as 1.005x10-3kg/ms, calculate the Reynolds number of the flow and
determine whether it is laminar or turbulent
Solution
A = D2/4 = 3.14x(0.1)2/4 = 7.85x10-3m2
V= Q/A = 0.025/7.85x10-3m2 = 3.18 m/s
Re = (1000x3.18x0.1)/1.005x10-5 = 316400
The flow is fully turbulent as 316400 is far much greater than 4000
Uniform flow: · If the flow depth remains constant and velocity is
the same magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid, then
flow is said to be uniform. That is if flow attributes remain the same
with respect to space
Non Uniform flow: · If the flow depth and velocity change with
space, then the flow is said to be non-uniform.
Steady flow: A steady flow is one in which the flow attributes

(velocity, depth, pressure and cross-section area of flow) may differ
from point to point but do not change with time. Thus flow
attributes should be constant with respect to time.
Unsteady flow: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change

with time, the flow is described as unsteady. (In practise there is
always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if the average
values are constant, the flow is considered steady).
.Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four types :
A. Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream or
with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant
velocity.
B. Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream
but do not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant
velocity at the inlet - velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe
toward the exit.
C. Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point
are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter
connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off.
D. Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point
to point and with time at every point. For example waves in a channel.
Fluid Flow Equations
When analyzing fluid motion, we might take one of two approaches:
(1) seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x, y, z)
in the filled volume of fluid or
(2) working with finite region, making a balance of flow in versus flow
out, and determining gross flow effects such as force, or torque on a
body, or total energy exchange.
The second approach is the control volume concept and is the subject
of this course.
We shall go through the three basic control volume relations in fluid
mechanics:
 The principle of conservation of mass, from which the continuity

equation is developed;
 The principle of conservation of energy, from which the energy

equation is derived;
 The principle of conservation of linear momentum, from which

equations evaluating dynamic forces exerted by flowing fluids may
be established.
Control volume concept
 A control volume is a finite region, chosen carefully by the analyst for a
particular problem, with open boundaries through which mass, momentum
and energy are allowed to cross . The analyst makes a budget, or balance,
between incoming and outgoing fluid and the resultant changes within the
control volume. Therefore, one can calculate the gross properties (net
force, total power output, total heat transfer, etc) with this method.
Control volume concept
 With this method however, we do not care about the details inside the
control volume (in other words we can treat the control volume as a black
box).
Continuity Equation
o it is based on the conservation of mass principle
Q1 = A1V1 = A2V2 = Q2
Where A is the cross-sectional area of
flow, V is the velocity of flow and Q is
the flow rate
Continuity Equation
Example
Water flows through a branching pipeline shown below. If the
diameter, D2, is 250 mm, V2 = 1.77 m/s and V3 = 1.43 m/s
2
(a) What diameter, D3, is required for Q3 = 2Q2?

(b) What is the total discharge at section 1 or Q1?
Continuity Equation
Solution
(a)
Q3 =2Q2 so A3V3 = 2A2V2  (3.14xD3xD3/4)x1.43 =
2x(3.14x0.25x0.25/4)*1.77
Thus D3 = 0.393 m
(b)
Q2 =A2V2 = (3.14x0.25x0.25/4)x1.77 = 0.087 m3/s
Q3 =2Q2 = 2x0.087 = 0.174 m3/s
Total discharge = Q1 = Q2 + Q3 = 0.087 + 0.174 = 0.261 m3/s

Continuity Equation
Example
Two separate pipelines (1 and 2) join together to form a larger
pipeline(3). It is known that D1 = 0.2 m, D2 = 1.0 m, Q2 = 0.23 m3/s and
Q3 = 0.35 m3/s
1
(a) What is the value of Q1,V1 and V2

(b) If V3 must not exceed 3.00 m/s, what is the minimum diameter, D3, that
can be used?
Continuity Equation
Solution
(a) Q1 = Q3 – Q2 = 0.35 - 0.23 = 0.12 m3/s
V1 =Q1/A1 = (0.12)/(3.14xd2/4) = (4x0.12)/(3.14x(0.2)2) = 3.82 m/s
V2 =Q2/A2 = (0.23)/(3.14xd2/4) = (4x0.23)/(3.14x(1.0)2) = 0.293 m/s
(b) Q3 = A3V3 = 0.35  A3 =Q3/V3
i.e, 0.35/3 = (3.14D2/4)  D = (4x0.35)/(3x3.14) =0.385 m

Energy Equation
This means that the increase in velocity is countered by decrease in

Pressure for example, such that the total energy of the system
remains the same
P1
Z1 P2
Z2
Energy Equation
Two points
joined by streamline
The Bernoulli equation applies to conditions along a streamline.

We can apply it between two points, 1 and 2, on the streamline
as above
Energy Equation
Two points
joined by streamline
Total energy per unit weigh t at 1  Total energy per unit weigh t at 2
Total head at 1  Total heat at 2
P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
Energy Equation
Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
are: (assumptions)
 Flow is steady;
 Density is constant (which also means the fluid is
incompressible)
 Friction losses are negligible
 The equation relates the states at two points along a single
streamline, (not conditions on two different streamlines)
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at any instant in
Reality! Fortunately for many real situations where the conditions
are approximately satisfied, the equation gives very good results.
Energy Equation
Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
are:
 Flow is steady;
 Density is constant (which also means the fluid is
incompressible)
 Friction losses are negligible
 The equation relates the states at two points along a single
streamline, (not conditions on two different streamlines)
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at any instant in
reality.
Fortunately for many real situations where the conditions are
approximately satisfied, the equation gives very good results.
Energy Equation
With real fluids and not ideal fluids the Bernoulli’s equation
becomes:
2 2
P1 V P2 V
  z1 
1
  z2  h f 2
g 2 g g 2 g
Where hf denotes the headloss/energy loss (friction etc)
Worked Example
Water flows through a pipeline of constant diameter that is
inclined upwards. On the centreline of the pipe, point 1 is 0.3 m
below point 2. The pressure at point 1 is 9.3 x103 N/m2. What is
the pressure at point 2 if there is no loss of energy
0.3 m

Worked Example
The diameter of the pipe is constant so (V1)2/2g = (V2)2/2g
Therefore the velocity heads are equal and therefore cancel out
and the Bernoulli’s equation becomes
Z1 +P1/g = Z2 + P2/g
Taking the datum level through point 1, Z1 = 0 and Z2 = 0.3 m
Therefore
0 + (9.3x103/(1000x9.81) = 0.3 + P2/g
P2/g = 0.948 – 0.300 = 0.648 m of water
P2 = 0.648x1000x9.81 = 6.36x103 N/m2
Worked Example
Water flows through an expanding pipeline that is inclined
upwards. On the centreline of the pipe, point 1 is 0.3 m below
point 2. The velocities are V1 = 3.1 m/s and V2 = 1.7 m/s. The
pressure at point 1 is 9.3 x103 N/m2. What is the pressure at
point 2 if there is no loss of energy
0.3 m

Worked Example
Z1 +P1/g +(V1)2/2g = Z2 + P2/g + (V2)2/2g

Taking the datum level through point 1, Z1 = 0 and Z2 = 0.3 m
Therefore
0 + (9.3x103/(1000x9.81) + (3.12/19.62)= 0.3 + P2/g +
(1.72/19.62)
0 +0.948 +0.490 = 0.3 + P2/g + 0.147
P2/g = 0.991 m of water

P2 = 0.991x1000x9.81 = 9.72x103 N/m2
Worked Example
Water flows through a pipeline which reduces in cross section. The
centreline of the pipe is horizontal. If V1 = 1.54 m/s and V2 =
2.65 m/s, P1 = 20.00 x103 N/m2 and P2 = 16.89 x103 N/m2 .
What is the energy loss between sections 1 and 2? Give answer in
m of water
Worked Example
Z1 +P1/g +(V1)2/2g = Z2 + P2/g + (V2)2/2g + loss

The centreline of the pipe is horizontal so z1 = z2 and these terms
cancel. Therefore
(20.00x103/(1000x9.81) + (1.542/19.62)=
(16.89x103/(1000x9.81) + (2.652/19.62)
0.121 + 2.039 = 0.358 + 1.722 + loss
2.160 = 2.080 + loss

Energy loss = 0.080 m of water
Momentum Equation
o The simplest definition of momentum is that momentum = mass x velocity
o Therefore a body has momentum by virtue of the fact that it is moving.
o If the velocity is zero, then the momentum is zero
Review of Newton’s Laws of Motion
1. A body will remain in the same condition of rest or of motion

with uniform velocity in a straight line until acted on by an
external force
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional
to the force acting upon it and it takes place in the line of
action of the force. For a body of mass, M
Force = rate of change of momentum = (MV2-MV1)/t
= M(V2-V1)/t = Ma
Momentum Equation
o Where V1 and V2 are the initial and final velocity of the body
respectively, t is the time over which the change of velocity
occurs, and a is the acceleration of the body.
3. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Momentum Equation
Momentum Equation
Therefore we can write the momentum equation suitable for
hydraulic systems
Since Q = A1V1 then

F = Q(V2-V1) = A1V1(V2-V1)
Velocity as a Vector Quantity

Velocity is a vector, so magnitude and direction must be
considered when applying the momentum equation. This
means that a force can arise in one or two ways
Momentum Equation
1. Force due to change in velocity magnitude.
An example could be a straight pipe along the x-axis that
reduces in diameter so that V2x > V1x.
A force would be exerted on the pipe taper section since there
is a change of momentum and Fx = Q(V2x – V1x)
2. Force due to change in velocity direction

Although the velocity in a pipeline of constant diameter does
not change when the pipe bends through an angle  degrees
the velocity component in say the x direction changes from V1
initially to V1cos().
So a force is still exerted when there is no change in velocity
magnitude but there is change of direction
Momentum Equation
2. Force due to change in velocity direction

Although the velocity in a pipeline of constant diameter does
not change when the pipe bends through an angle  degrees
the velocity component in say the x direction changes from V1
initially to V1cos().
So a force is still exerted when there is no change in velocity
but there is change of direction
3. Thus force can change due to change in both magnitude

and direction
Momentum Equation
Applying the control volume concept to momentum principle
Suppose we want to analyse the flow of water around

the pipe bend as shown above with the objective of
calculating the resultant force, FR
Momentum Equation
The control volume for the pipe bend has the same
geometry as the real pipe. Then the control volume
concept is that
Momentum Equation
The control volume for the pipe bend has the same
geometry as the real pipe. Then the control volume
concept is that
The algebraic sum of external forces acting on the fluid

in the control volume in a given direction, F =
The rate of change of momentum in the given direction

as a result of fluid passing through the control volume,
Q(V2 – V1)
Momentum Equation
Thus we ignore the equal and opposite internal forces
acting on the control volume. If we write the force in
the x and y directions then they are as follows
Fx = Q(V2x – V1x)

Fy = Q(V2y – V1y)
Momentum Equation
Some steps to set up a problem prior to analysis
1. Draw the hydraulic system, then draw the imaginary control
volume which represents the part of the system to be
analysed.
2. Use arrows to show the direction of travel of the liquid
entering and leaving the control volume. Label them V1 and
V2 to represent the velocities
3. Label the axes, x and y for a two dimensional problem in
the horizontal plane, x and z for a problem in the vertical
plane . The axes are positive in the initial direction of the
fluid as it enters the control volume. For example, in the
diagram above , x is positive from left to right and y in the
upward vertical direction
Momentum Equation
4. Draw the external forces acting on the control volume. This
includes the external pressure forces (PA) acting on the ends
of the pipe, and the resultant force, FR.
5. Vector quantities such as velocity, pressure and the

unknown resultant force must be resolved in the direction of
the axes before the values are put into the momentum
equation
If you do not know the direction in which FRX and FRY act
initially, guess. Having applied the momentum equation, your
guess is correct if the answer obtained for FRY or FRX is positive
and wrong if it is negative
Momentum Equation
6. All forces acting in the same direction as positive axes are
positive, those acting in the opposite direction are negative.
Use these signs when evaluating FX, FY or FZ
Momentum Equation
To calculate the resultant force, FR,the steps are

Momentum Equation
1. Draw the control volume and its external forces as outlined
before
2. Work out the algebraic sum of external forces acting on the
control volume in the x direction(FX). This includes the
unknown FRX that we are calculating.
3. Equate FX from step 2 to the rate of change of momentum
in the x direction calculated from the product of mass flow
rate and the change of velocity, that is Q(V2X – V1X)
4. Solve for the unknown force, FRX
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 but for the y direction to obtain FRY
6. Calculate FR = (FRX2 +FRY2)1/2 and its angle to the horizontal
is given by  = tan-1 (FRY/FRX)
Applying the Momentum Equation
Will use the momentum equation to evaluate forces
acting on pipe bends and nozzles
A. Pipe Bends
Assuming there is no loss of momentum and that there
is no turbulence at the bend then
X direction: P1A1 –P2A2cos() – FRX = Q(V2cos() – V1)

Y direction: FRY – P2A2Sin() = Q(V2sin())
This is when the flow is horizontal or xy plane

Momentum Equation
This is when the flow is horizontal

Momentum Equation
This is when flow is vertical

Pipe bend
Worked Example
A pipeline of constant diameter of 0.30 m turns through
an angle of 60°. The centreline of the pipe does not
change elevation. The discharge through the pipeline is
0.1 m3/s of water, and the pressure at the bend is 30 m
of water. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force on the pipe.
Worked Example
A pipeline of constant diameter of 0.30 m turns through
an angle of 60°. The centreline of the pipe does not
change elevation. The discharge through the pipeline is
0.1 m3/s of water, and the pressure at the bend is 30 m
of water. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force on the pipe.
Worked Example
STEP 1: Apply the continuity equation
Q= A1V1 = A2V2 , where A1 =A2= (x0.32)/4 = 0.071 m2
0.1 = 0.071x V1  V1 = 1.41 m/s = V2
STEP 2: Apply the momentum equation in the x and y

directions, remembering the sign convention
P1 = P2 = gh = 1000x9.81x30 = 294.30 x 103 N/m2
For x direction:P1A1 –P2A2cos() – FRX = Q(V2cos() – V1)

294.30x103x0.071 – 294.30x103x0.071cos(60°) –FRX =
1000x0.1(1.41xcos(60°)-1.41)
20.90 x 103 – 10.45x103 –FRX = 1000x0.1x(-0.71)

FRX =10.52 x103 N
Note: the +ve answer indicates that FRX is acting in the direction
assumed
Worked Example
STEP 2:
Y direction: FRY – P2A2Sin() = Q(V2sin())
: FRY –294.30x103x0.071Sin(60°) =1000x0.1x(1.41Sin(60°))
FRY – 18.10x103 = 1000x0.1x1.22

FRY = 18.22 x 103 N
Note: the +ve answer indicates that FRY is acting in the direction
assumed
Worked Example
STEP 3: Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
FR = (FRX2 +FRY2)1/2 = 103(10.522 + 18.222)1/2 = 21.0 x103N
and its angle to the horizontal is given by
 = tan-1 (FRY/FRX)= tan-1(18.22/10.52) = 60°.
This is the magnitude and direction of the external force exerted by

the pipe on the water.
The water exerts an equal force on the pipe in the opposite direction
Will use the momentum equation to evaluate forces
acting on pipe bends and nozzles
B. Nozzles
The momentum equation can also be used to investigate
force exerted by a stream of moving liquid on a nozzle
B. Nozzles
Notice how the one dimensional system greatly

simplifies matters
The liquid tries to force the nozzle off the end of the pipe, so it
must be held in place by for example , a number of bolts around the
flange of the pipe. If the force, F, is calculated and is known what
tensile force one bolt can withstand, then a suitable connection with
an appropriate number of bolts can be designed.
In this situation, there is change in velocity as a result of the
reducing area of the nozzle, but no change in direction. So the
momentum equation is applied along the direction of motion
This means the subscripts are omitted. Using the same sign
convention as before, forces are positive if acting from left to right,
so
P1A1 –P2A2 – FR = Q(V2 – V1)
this can be simplified by assuming that because the nozzle is
discharging to the atmosphere the pressure of jet P2, will equal the
atmospheric pressure, i.e., P2 = 0. then
FR = P1A1 – Q(V2 – V1)

Worked Example
A pipeline reduces in diameter using a standard symmetrical taper
as shown below. Given the following information, calculate the
force exerted by the water on the taper section: Q = 0.42 m3/s, D1
= 0.60 m, D2 = 0.30 m, P1 = 25.30 m water, P2 = 9.13 m water, 
= 1000 Kg/m3
Worked Example
STEP 1: Apply the continuity equation
Q= A1V1 = A2V2 , A1 =(x0.62)/4= 0.283 m2 and
A2= (x0.32)/4 = 0.071 m2
0.42 =0.283V1 ,  V1 = 1.48 m/s
0.42 =0.071V2 ,  V2 = 5.92 m/s
STEP 2: Apply the momentum equation in the direction of motion

P1 = P1 = gh = 1000x9.81x25.30 = 248.19 x 103 N/m2
P2 = P2 = gh = 1000x9.81x9.13 = 89.57 x 103 N/m2
P1A1 –P2A2 – FR = Q(V2– V1)

248.19x103x0.283 – 89.57x103x0.071–FR =1000x0.42(5.92-1.48)
70.24 x 103 – 6.36x103 –FR = 1.86x103
FR =62.0 x103 N
The internal force exerted by the water on the taper is 62.0x103 N
from left to right

Attachment

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Attachment

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

FLUID DYNAMICS- Fluids in Motion

This section discusses the analysis of fluid in motion - fluid

Classification of fluid flow

Turbulent flow: if you were to a tracer and watch it flow, you

The Reynolds number is usually used to determine whether flow is

For flow in circular pipes

Steady flow: A steady flow is one in which the flow attributes

Unsteady flow: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change

 The principle of conservation of mass, from which the continuity

 The principle of conservation of energy, from which the energy

 The principle of conservation of linear momentum, from which

(a) What diameter, D3, is required for Q3 = 2Q2?

Q3 =2Q2 = 2x0.087 = 0.174 m3/s

Total discharge = Q1 = Q2 + Q3 = 0.087 + 0.174 = 0.261 m3/s

(a) What is the value of Q1,V1 and V2

(b) Q3 = A3V3 = 0.35  A3 =Q3/V3

i.e, 0.35/3 = (3.14D2/4)  D = (4x0.35)/(3x3.14) =0.385 m

This means that the increase in velocity is countered by decrease in

The Bernoulli equation applies to conditions along a streamline.

Z1 +P1/g +(V1)2/2g = Z2 + P2/g + (V2)2/2g

P2/g = 0.991 m of water

Z1 +P1/g +(V1)2/2g = Z2 + P2/g + (V2)2/2g + loss

0.121 + 2.039 = 0.358 + 1.722 + loss

2.160 = 2.080 + loss

Review of Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. A body will remain in the same condition of rest or of motion

3. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Since Q = A1V1 then

Velocity as a Vector Quantity

2. Force due to change in velocity direction

2. Force due to change in velocity direction

3. Thus force can change due to change in both magnitude

Suppose we want to analyse the flow of water around

The algebraic sum of external forces acting on the fluid

The rate of change of momentum in the given direction

Fx = Q(V2x – V1x)

5. Vector quantities such as velocity, pressure and the

To calculate the resultant force, FR,the steps are

X direction: P1A1 –P2A2cos() – FRX = Q(V2cos() – V1)

This is when the flow is horizontal or xy plane

This is when the flow is horizontal

This is when flow is vertical

STEP 2: Apply the momentum equation in the x and y

For x direction:P1A1 –P2A2cos() – FRX = Q(V2cos() – V1)

20.90 x 103 – 10.45x103 –FRX = 1000x0.1x(-0.71)

FRY – 18.10x103 = 1000x0.1x1.22

This is the magnitude and direction of the external force exerted by

Notice how the one dimensional system greatly

FR = P1A1 – Q(V2 – V1)

STEP 2: Apply the momentum equation in the direction of motion

P1A1 –P2A2 – FR = Q(V2– V1)

Potrebbero piacerti anche