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Materials
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COMPOSITE MATERIALS
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the classes and types of composites?
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Composites
A judicious combination of two or more materials that
produces a synergistic effect.
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Composites
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Why Composites?
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Mechanical Properties
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Advanced composites
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Why composites???
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Why composites???
Mechanical advantage
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Why composites???
Mechanical advantage
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Why composites???
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Why composites???
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Why composites???
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Composites-Limitations
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Composites-Limitations
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Composites-selection
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Reinforcements for composites
For improved ductility, toughness
and effective transfer of load from
matrix to fiber large surface area is
needed at fiber matrix interface
Consider a lamina
For same volume on the other
lamina
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Reinforcements for composites
Griffith (1920) found that as the glass rods and fibers got
thinner, they got stronger (1500 MPa at d = 2 μm, 170 MPa at d
= 20 μm)
smaller the diameter, the smaller the likelihood that failure-
inducing surface cracks would be generated during fabrication
and handling.
Griffith found that for very small diameters the fiber strength
approached the theoretical cohesive strength between adjacent
layers of atoms.
For large diameters the fiber strength dropped to near the
strength of bulk glass.
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Reinforcements for composites
Flexibility-Fibers are expected to bend without breaking are required in
manufacturing of composite materials, especially for woven fabric
composites Consider a lamina
From the simple bending theory, the flexibility and moment of inertia I for
bending of a cylindrical body of diameter d under bending moment is
expressed as
Flexibility=(1/stiffness)
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Fiber factors on performances of
composites
Fiber length
Long fibers-impact resistance, low shrinkage, surface finish,
dimensional stability
Short fibers- low cost, easy to work, fewer flaws and less
fabrication time.
Orientation
one direction give very high stiffness and strength in that direction
If orientated in different directions and higher strength in orientations
(mat, lamina)
For same volume of fibers per unit volume of the composite, it cannot
match the stiffness and strength of unidirectional composites
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Fibers on performances of
composites
Fiber shape
Circular
square and hexagonal (High packing factor, stiffness, stiffness, processing
difficulty)
Material-high strength and elastic moduli materials
Fiber matrix interface
mechanical bond-roughness or etching of the fiber surface causing interlocking
Chemical bond-fiber surface and matrix (coupling agents)
(CTE??????)-residual stress, warpage-distortion
Reaction bonding-atoms or molecules of fiber and matrix diffuse into each other
at the interface-interphase
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Matrix
Matrix material
• provides the bulk form of the part or product
• holds the imbedded phase in place
• shares the load with the secondary phase
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Matrix Materials
Functions of the matrix
• Transmit force between fibers
• arrest cracks from spreading between fibers
• do not carry most of the load
• hold fibers in proper orientation
• protect fibers from environment
• mechanical forces can cause cracks that allow environment to affect fibers
Demands on matrix
• Interlaminar shear strength
• Toughness
• Moisture/environmental resistance
• Temperature properties
• Cost
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Classification of composite material
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
• Include mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented
carbides and other cermets, as well as aluminum or
magnesium reinforced by strong, high stiffness fibers
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
• Least common composite matrix.
• Aluminum oxid and silicon carbide are materials that can be
imbedded with fibers for improved properties, especially in
high temperature applications
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
• Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in
PMCs.
• Epoxy and polyester are commonly mixed with fiber
reinforcement
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Polymer Matrices
Polymers
Non-crystalline Crystalline
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Matrices - Polymeric
Thermosets
• cure by chemical reaction
• Irreversible
• Examples
• Polyester, vinylester
• Most common, lower cost, solvent resistance
• Epoxy resins
• Superior performance, relatively costly
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Matrices - Thermosets
Polyester
Vinyl Esters
Vinyl Esters are similar to polyester in performance. Vinyl
esters have increased resistance to corrosive environments
as well as a high degree of moisture resistance.
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Matrices - Thermosets
Epoxy
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Matrices - Thermosets
Epoxy
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Matrices - Thermoplastics
Formed by heating to elevated temperature at
which softening occurs
• Reversible reaction
• Can be reformed and/or repaired - not common
• Limited in temperature range to 150C
Examples
• Polypropylene
• with nylon or glass
• can be injected-- inexpensive
• Soften layers of combined fiber and resin and place in
a mold -- higher costs
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Matrices
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Additional elements
Hardeners-aids/ supports curing
process
Plastizers-Lubricants, improves
toughness, flexibility, processability and
ductility, reduces the strength
Fillers-Ingredients to improve the surface
texture, strength (Fabric, chopped wood
flour)
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The Reinforcing Phase
The imbedded phase is most commonly
one of the following shapes:
• Fibers
• Particles
• Flakes
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Basic Principles of reinforcement
Types of reinforcing elements
Forms of reinforcing elements
Direction of reinforcement
Load transferring ability
Volume fraction of reinforcements
Continuous vs. discontinuous
reinforcement
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The Reinforcing Phase
Fibers
Diameters range from .0001 in to about .005 in depending
on the material.
Generally circular in cross-section, but can also be in the
form of tubular, rectangle, hexagonal.
Fibers used can be either continuous or discontinuous
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The Reinforcing Phase
Orientation of fibers is an important consideration.
One-dimensional
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Forms of Reinforcement Phase
Fibers
• cross-section can be circular, square or hexagonal
• Diameters --> 0.0001” - 0.005 “
• Lengths --> L/D ratio
• 100 -- for chopped fiber
• much longer for continuous fiber
Particulate
• small particles that impede dislocation movement (in metal
composites) and strengthens the matrix
• For sizes > 1 m, strength of particle is involved in load sharing
with matrix
Flakes
• flat platelet form
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Types of Composite Materials
There are five basic types of composite materials:
Fiber, particle, flake, laminar or layered and filled
composites.
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A. Fiber Composites
In fiber composites, the fibers reinforce along the line of their length.
Reinforcement may be mainly 1-D, 2-D or 3-D. Figure shows the three basic
types of fiber orientation.
Cermets
(1) Oxide–Based cermets
(e.g. Combination of Al2O3 with Cr)
(2) Carbide–Based Cermets
(e.g. Tungsten–carbide, titanium–carbide)
Metal–plastic particle composites
(e.g. Aluminum, iron & steel, copper particles)
Metal–in–metal Particle Composites and
Dispersion Hardened Alloys
(e.g. Ceramic–oxide particles)
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C. Flake Composites - 1
Flakes, because of their shape, usually
reinforce in 2-D.
Two common flake materials are glass
and mica. (Also aluminum is used as
metal flakes)
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C. Flake Composites -2
A flake composite consists of thin, flat flakes
held together by a binder or placed in a
matrix.
Almost all flake composite matrixes are
plastic resins. The most important flake
materials are:
1. Aluminum
2. Mica
3. Glass
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C. Flake Composites -3
Basically, flakes will provide:
Uniform mechanical properties in the plane of
the flakes
Higher strength
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D. Laminar Composites - 1
Laminar composites involve two or more
layers of the same or different materials.
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D. Laminar Composites - 2
Like all composites laminar composites aim
at combining constituents to produce
properties that neither constituent alone
would have.
In laminar composites outer metal is not
called a matrix but a face.
The inner metal, even if stronger, is not
called a reinforcement. It is called a base.
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D. Laminar Composites - 3
We can divide laminar composites into three basic types:
Unreinforced–layer composites
(1) All–Metal
(a) Plated and coated metals (electrogalvanized steel –
steel plated with zinc)
(b) Clad metals (aluminum–clad, copper–clad)
(c) Multilayer metal laminates (tungsten, beryllium)
(2) Metal–Nonmetal (metal with plastic, rubber, etc.)
(3) Nonmetal (glass–plastic laminates, etc.)
Reinforced–layer composites (laminae and laminates)
Combined composites (reinforced–plastic laminates well
bonded with steel, aluminum, copper, rubber, gold, etc.)
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D. Laminar Composites - 4
A laminate is a stack of
lamina arranged with their
main reinforcement in at least
two different directions.
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E. Filled Composites
There are two types of filled composites.
In one, filler materials are added to a normal
composite result in strengthening the
composite and reducing weight.
The second type of filled composite consists
of a skeletal 3-D matrix holding a second
material. The most widely used composites of
this kind are sandwich structures and
honeycombs.
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F. Combined Composites
It is possible to combine
several different materials
into a single composite.
It is also possible to combine
several different composites
into a single product.
A good example is a modern
(snow)ski. (combination of
wood as natural fiber, and
layers as laminar
composites)
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Fibers
Inorganic fibers
• Glass
• Graphite (carbon)
• Silicon carbide
Organic fibers
• Aramid
• Thermoplastics
Metallic fibers
• Stainless steel
• Nickel alloy
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The Reinforcing Phase
Types of fabrics
Currently, the most common fibers used in composites are
glass, graphite (carbon), boron and Kevlar 49.
Glass – most widely used fiber in polymer composites,
the term fiberglass is applied to denote glass fiber-
reinforced plastic (GFRP)
• E-glass – strong and low cost, but modulus is less than
other (500,000 psi)
• S-glass – stiffer and its tensile strength in one of the highest
of all fiber materials (650,000 psi). Has about five times
the tensile strength of steel and has a density of about
one third that of steel
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The Reinforcing Phase
Carbon – are generally a combination of graphite. Graphite
has a tensile strength three to five times stronger than steel
and has a density that is one-fourth that of steel.
Boron – very high elastic modulus, but its high cost limits its
application to aerospace components
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Glass Fibers
Glass is an amorphous material that consists of a
silica (SiO2) backbone with various oxide
components
A-glass: Appearance
E-glass: calcium aluminoborosilicate with 2% alkali;
good strength and electrical resistivity; the least
expensive one
S-glass: 40% higher than E-glass; high temp
application
C-glass: soda limeborosilicate; use in corrosive
environments
D-glass: Dielectric environments
Quartz: low dielectric; use for protecting antennas
and radomes
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Properties of Glass Fibers
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Use of Glass Fibers
Tensile strength is highly dependent on surface
defects.
The shorter the sample, the higher the value.
Moisture has a detrimental effect on strengths
Temperature has profound impact on strength
and modulus.
The higher the temperature, the lower the
strength (E-glass will be lower than S-glass).
The higher the temperature, the higher the
tensile modulus (E and S are about the same)
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Surface Treatments
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Manufacturing of glass Fibers
Sand, limestone, alumina
@1500°C
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Carbon/Graphite Fibers
Three precursors: polyacrylonitrile (PAN),
Rayon, and mesophase pitch fibers,
stretched and heated at 350oC then 1000oC
Dimensions
C, Ni atm- pyrolisis
Graphitic form,
tension
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Carbon/Graphite Fibers
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Properties of Graphite Fibers
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Organic Fibers
Developed from aromatic polyamides, also known as aramid
fibers
Manufactured by E.I. Du Pont with a trade name – Kevlar
It is fully aligned and closely packed
The polymer is washed and then dissolved in sulfuric acid.
20 wt% polymer solution is then passed through an extruder
and spinnerettes to develop a high degree of orientation
(liquid crystal form; process patented)
Four types of aramid fibers: kevlar®, Kevlar 29 (high
toughness), kevlar 49 (high modulus) and kevlar 149 (ultra-
high modulus)
Kevlar fibers are less brittle than carbon or glass fibers
Combination of good strength, light weight and excellent
toughness has led to the unique applications for aramid
composites
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Properties of Kevlar Fibers
Tensile Tensile Elongation Density
Modulus Strength (%) (g/c.c.)
(MPa) (MPa)
K29 83 3.6 4 1.44
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Inorganic Fibers
A class of short crystalline fibers, often called crystal
whisker fibers
Made of aluminum oxide, beryllium oxide, magnesium
oxide, potassium titanate, silicon carbide, silicon nitride,
titanium boride, etc.
Boron and silicon carbide fibers are popular because
they offer very high tensile strength and modulus.
Boron fibers are considered amorphous (crystal
structure is small), but SiC has a much larger crystal
structure.
Boron fibers have a surface structure like scale or
corncob appearance. SiC fibers have a smoother
surface than boron.
Boron composites have excellent tensile property
retention with increasing temperature
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Boron/Silicon Carbide
Boron trichloride interacts with the tungsten filament to form
tungsten borides, simultaneous bonded with the deposited
boron coated layers.
Silicon carbide, a structure similar to diamond, offers a low
density, high stiffness, high strength and excellent thermal
stability and thermal conductivity properties.
Growth from a melt --whisker form – defect free, single
crystal rod, 0.1-1μm in diameter
CVD on fine carbon (30 μm) or tungsten (10 μm) fiber core
to yield a large-diameter SiC monofilament fiber (100-150
μm)
Developed from polycarbosilane (PCS) precursor, stretched
and heated at 1300oC .
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Properties of Boron and SiC Filaments
Boron Silicon Carbide
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METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
Cemented carbides are composed of one or more
Carbide compounds bonded in a metallic matrix
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METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
Carbide ceramics constitute the principal ingredient in
cemented carbides, typically ranging in content from
80% to 95% of total weight.
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METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
Cutting tools are the most common application of
cemented carbides based on tungsten carbide
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CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
Advantage Disadvantage
High stiffness Low toughness and bulk
Hardness tensile strength
Hot hardness Susceptibility to thermal
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CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
Ceramic materials used as matrices includes:
• Alumina
• Boron carbide
• Boron nitride
• Silicon carbide
• Silicon nitride
• Titanium carbide
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POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
The most important of the three classes of synthetic
composites.
FRP are most closely identified with the term composite.
FRP
A composite material consisting of a polymer matrix
imbedded with high-strength fibers.
Widely used in rubber products such as tires and
conveyor belts.
Principle fiber materials are: glass, carbon, and Kevlar
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POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
Advanced composites – use boron, carbon, Kevlar
as the reinforcing fibers with epoxy as the common
matrix polymer.
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POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
Hybrids
When two or more fibers materials are combined in the
composite.
• Intraply hybrids (within) - Alternate strands of
different fibers in a single layer or ply (Fig. 19-6).
• Interply hybrid (across) – Different plies of different
fibers (Figure 19-7).
The most widely used form if a laminar structure,
made by stacking and bonding thin layers of fiber
and polymer until the desired thickness is obtained.
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POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
Attractive features of FRP:
• high strength-to-weight ratio
• high modulus-to-weight ratio
• low specific gravity
• good fatigue strength
• good corrosion resistance, although polymers are
soluble in various chemicals
• low thermal expansion, leading to good dimensional
stability
• significant anisotropy in properties
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COMPOSITE BENEFITS
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/
ceramics
Force 103
particle-reinf
E(GPa) PMCs
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10 metal/
fiber-reinf 1 metal alloys
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10-4 Density, [Mg/m3]
ss (s -1) 6061 Al
• MMCs: 10-6
Increased
creep 6061 Al
10-8
resistance w/SiC
whiskers (MPa)
10-10
20 30 50 100 200 81
Fiber Reinforcement
The typical composite consists of a matrix holding
reinforcing materials.
The reinforcing materials, the most important is the
fibers, supply the basic strength of the composite.
However, reinforcing materials can contribute much
more than strength.
They can conduct heat or resist chemical corrosion.
They can resist or conduct electricity.
They may be chosen for their stiffness (modulus of
elasticity) or for many other properties.
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Types of Fibers
The fibers are divided into two main groups:
Glass fibers: There are many different kinds of glass,
ranging from ordinary bottle glass to high purity quartz
glass. All of these glasses can be made into fibers.
Each offers its own set of properties.
Advanced fibers: These materials offer high strength
and high stiffness at low weight. Boron, silicon, carbide
and graphite fibers are in this category. So are the
aramids, a group of plastic fibers of the polyamide
(nylon) family.
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Fibers - Glass
Fiberglass properties vary somewhat according to the type of glass used.
However, glass in general has several well–known properties that contribute
to its great usefulness as a reinforcing agent:
• Tensile strength
• Chemical resistance
• Moisture resistance
• Thermal properties
• Electrical properties
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Fibers - Glass
Most widely used fiber
Uses: piping, tanks, boats, sporting goods
Advantages
• Low cost
• Corrosion resistance
• Low cost relative to other composites:
Disadvantages
• Relatively low strength
• High elongation
• Moderate strength and weight
Types:
• E-Glass - electrical, cheaper
• S-Glass - high strength
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Fibers - Aramid (kevlar, Twaron)
Uses:
• high performance replacement for glass fiber
Examples
• Armor, protective clothing, industrial, sporting
goods
Advantages:
• higher strength and lighter than glass
• More ductile than carbon
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Fibers - Carbon
2nd most widely used fiber
Examples
• aerospace, sporting goods
Advantages
• high stiffness and strength
• Low density
• Intermediate cost
• Properties:
• Standard modulus: 207-240 Gpa
• Intermediate modulus: 240-340 GPa
• High modulus: 340-960 GPa
• Diameter: 5-8 microns, smaller than human hair
• Fibers grouped into tows or yarns of 2-12k fibers
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Fibers -- Carbon (2)
Types of carbon fiber
• vary in strength with processing
• Trade-off between strength and modulus
Intermediate modulus
• PAN (Polyacrylonitrile)
• fiber precursor heated and stretched to align structure and
remove non-carbon material
High modulus
• made from petroleum pitch precursor at lower cost
• much lower strength
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Fibers - Others
Boron
• High stiffness, very high cost
• Large diameter - 200 microns
• Good compressive strength
Polyethylene - trade name: Spectra fiber
• Textile industry
• High strength
• Extremely light weight
• Low range of temperature usage
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Fibers -- Others (2)
Ceramic Fibers (and matrices)
• Very high temperature applications (e.g.
engine components)
• Silicon carbide fiber - in whisker form.
• Ceramic matrix so temperature resistance is
not compromised
• Infrequent use
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Fiber Material Properties
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Fiber Strength
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SUMMARY
• Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
• Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance y, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, y, TS, creep performance
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
• Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.
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Important Note
Composite properties are less than
that of the fiber because of dilution
by the matrix and the need to orient
fibers in different directions.
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Costs of composite manufacture
Material costs -- higher for composites
• Constituent materials (e.g., fibers and resin)
• Processing costs -- embedding fibers in matrix
• not required for metals Carbon fibers order of magnitude
higher than aluminum
Design costs -- lower for composites
• Can reduce the number of parts in a complex
assembly by designing the material in combination
with the structure
Increased performance must justify higher
material costs
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Applications
Aerospace
• Interiors
www.hillaero.com/ Composite.html
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Applications
Aerospace
• Interiors
• Secondary Structures
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Applications
Aerospace
• Interiors
• Secondary Structures
• Airframes
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Left: AGM-158 nose is made with a triaxial braiding machine
Right: AGM-158 during a test flight.
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Applications
Aerospace
• Interiors
• Secondary Structures
• Airframes
• Turbine Blades
www.geae.com/ ourcommitment/innovation/
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Applications
Automotive
-Secondary Structures/body panels
-Corrosion sensitive parts
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Valve covers for
Daimler- Chrysler’s
engine.
BMC 695 vinyl ester
Provides impact and
corrosion resistance
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Automotive Applications
Secondary
Corrosion Sensitive
Drive Train &
Suspension
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Applications
Automotive
-Secondary Structures/body panels
-Corrosion sensitive parts
-Drive train and suspension
-Boat hulls
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Consumer Applications
Sporting Goods
• Fishing poles
• Skis
• Protective gear
• Racquets
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Civil/Structural Applications
Corrosion Resistant
Structures
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Civil/Structural Applications
Corrosion Resistant
Structures
Seismic Retrofits
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www.fhwa.dot.gov/ bridge/frp/seismpho.htm
Civil/Structural Applications
Corrosion Resistant
Structures
Seismic Retrofits
Rebar
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Civil/Structural Applications
Corrosion Resistant
Structures
Seismic Retrofits
Rebar
Light Structures
www.skp-cs.com/
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Applications
Medical
Hip Implants
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Applications
Medical
Hip Implants
Prostheses
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