Missile Guidance (Lecture 3)

A K Sarkar (Visiting Faculty, DIAT Pune)

Lecture Series on
Missile Technology-Advanced
conducted by BEL Bangalore
11-03-2019 to 15-03-2019

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 Flow of Presentation

• Introduction
• Midcourse Guidance
 Implicit Guidance
 Explicit Guidance

• Imaging Processing Based Guidance

 TERrain COntour Matching (TERCOM)
 Digita Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC)

• INS / GPS Hybrid Navigation

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 Putting It All Together
Guidance of Long Range Missiles

Target Reflection

ANTENNA
BEAM

LAUNCH
CYCLE BOOST MIDCOURSE
TERMINAL
GUIDANCE
GUIDANCE
PRESS SEPARATE INITIATE INITIATE IMPACT
“LAUNCH SEMIACTIVE ACTIVE
” MODE MODE
 Midcourse Guidance for

Strategic Vehicles

Tactical Vehicles

Cruise Missiles

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5
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7
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 Position Tracking in Implicit Guidance

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11
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13
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 OFFLINE TRAJECTORY OPTIMIZATION
To EVOLVE Optimal Trajectory
To be tracked in Implicit Guidance

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 Trajectory Optimization of Flight Vehicles

Optimization
Methods of
Solution

Tactical
Direct Methods
Tactical
Indirect Methods
Strategic Strategic

Tactical Tactical Tactical

Tactical
Strategic Flight Tactical Flight Tactical Flight
Vehicle Strategi Strategi
Strategic Flight
Strategi
Vehicle
Strategic Vehicle Vehicle
c c c
Off line trajectory Real Time
Optimization Implementation

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 Optimal Control Based Solution of
Two Point Boundary Value Problem
(Indirect Method)

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27 March 2019 20
 NLP Based Direct Transcription Method
(Direct Method)

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Optimal Control and Nonlinear Programming (Direct Method)

State Propagation

Defect

Direct transcription method (multiple shooting) for NLP

(Defect)
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Betts 27 T. Practical
J March 2019 Methods for Optimal Control Using Nonlinear Programming
23 .
SIAM, first edition, 2001.
 Optimization Methodology

• Direct Method
• Strategic Flight Vehicle(SFV)
•Based on Non Linear Programming
• Discretization of Plant Equations
• Matlab® Toolbox – fmincon (Function)

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 Matlab® Optimization Toolbox

(5)

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 Reference: Betts J T. Practical Methods for Optimal Control Using
Nonlinear Programming. SIAM, first edition, 2001.
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Description of Experimental Flight Vehicle – Strategic System
 Experimental vehicle considered for Strategic System is a single
Stage Solid Propelled Vehicle.
 Solid Motor provides the energy to inject the payload into its
desired trajectory to hit the target at the specified location.
 Solid Rocket Motors do not have any Thrust Termination.
 Vehicle lifts off vertically from a Launcher and then during its
initial phase, it is guided by means of Optimal Trajectory Shaped
Open Loop Guidance.
 Solid Stage is controlled in Pitch and yaw Plane by means of a
Thrust Vector Control through Secondary Injection Control
during Initial Phase and then with Fin – Tip Control System.
 Vehicle is roll stabilized right from the Lift-Off. Payload is a stable
payload controlled by Reaction Control Systems for Roll, Pitch
and Yaw.
 Once Payload is injected into its desired path, it follows a free
flight and re-enters into the atmosphere and it impacts the
target.

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 Typical Trajectory of Strategic Flight Vehicle

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 Dynamic Equations of Motion - Strategic Flight Vehicle

(8)

(9)

(10)
(11)
(12)

Assumptions

• Spherical Earth

• Rigid body Dynamics

• Pitch plane Dynamics

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 Assumptions made for 3 DoF Model

 Missile Dynamic Model is based on point mass 3DOF Model

with spherical rotating Earth
 Air Density varies according to the Indian Standard
atmosphere model.
 Missile Aerodynamic para meters are function of Mach No.,
Angle of Attack and Altitude.
 Missile Thrust and Mass are function of Time.
 Theta profile (Pitch Program) as control history.
 Autopilot lag and effect of sensor noise are not included.

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 Proposed Methodology

Flight vehicle Parameters

In Flight Constraints

Minimum Control effort

Mathematical Formulation

Solution by direct/Indirect
Method

Off line solution

Control History

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Trajectory Optimization for Strategic Systems with NLP Technique

 The initial conditions of state variables 𝑽, 𝜸, 𝒙, 𝒚 are provided as launch

conditions for vertically launched FV.
 The control input is FV attitude 𝜽 time history.
 The Cost Function is described as Performance Index (PI) used for
maximization of FV range is

𝑱 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒙𝒎 𝒕𝒇 (13)
Where 𝒕𝒇 = 𝒕𝒃 + 𝒕𝒄
 Parameter vector 𝚯 = 𝒕𝒄 . The element 𝒕𝒄 has to be maximized to obtain
maximum range.
 The constraints corresponding to flight path optimization for a given
propulsion system are specified which are completely based on probable
maximum and minimum values of state variables in the problem.

27 March 2019 Continued…

32
Trajectory Optimization for Strategic Systems with NLP Technique

 Path constraint of FV after booster burnout is that during entire coast phase
till impact the FV angle of attack should be zero.

𝜽 − 𝜸 = 𝟎 𝒕𝒃 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝒕𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 (14)
 The terminal inequality constraints are

𝑴 𝒕𝒇 ≥ 𝑴𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒇 (15)
Where 𝑴𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎
 Nonlinear state inequality constraints to be satisfied during complete
trajectory as
− 𝜶𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≤ 𝜶 ≤ 𝜶𝒎𝒂𝒙 (16)
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 (17)
𝟎 ≤ 𝝆𝑽 𝜶 ≤ 𝝆𝑽 𝜶 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
−𝜸𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒎𝒂
≤ 𝜸𝒍 𝒎𝒂 ≤ 𝜸𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒎𝒂

27 March 2019 Continued…

33
Trajectory Optimization for Strategic Systems with NLP Technique

 In this optimization problem ‘α’ has been considered as control input.

 Initial guess of the control history has been arrived at based on burn out 𝜸
requirement for the Flight Vehicle
 This control variable is evolved based on specified PI during the Powered
Phase of Flight.
 During free flight phase the vehicle states have been propagated till
impact.
 The impact range has been considered as the performance index to be
maximized.
 The variable 𝜸 gets evolved through state equation.
 After convergence the attitude history is obtained as θ = 𝜶 + 𝜸 θ (t) till
power on phase is a control input to the FV

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 Convergence of NLP Optimizer

Boost Phase grids Free Flight Phase grids

tb tc Time
tf

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 Optimization Results with Point Mass Simulation using NLP

SFV (downrange, altitude) time history (3DOF simulation + NLP evolved , profile)

27 March 2019 Continued…

36
Optimization Results with Point Mass Simulation using NLP

SFV (, , ) time history (3DOF simulation + NLP evolved , profile)

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37
Optimization Results with Point Mass Simulation using NLP

27 March 2019 Continued…

38
Optimization Results with Point Mass Simulation using NLP

27 March 2019 Continued…

39
Evaluation of Algorithm Performance with 6 DoF Simulation

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 Schematic of 6 DoF Simulation Model
V,Z
T

CG,WT,MI AERODYNAMIC ATMOS MODEL

PARAMETERS
Z
WIND
PRESS

THRUST INTERPOLATION

p,q,r
X,Y,Z
ax,ay,az
RIGID BODY DYNAMICS KINEMATICS GUIDANCE
Vx,Vy,Vz

s, p
 ,V NAVIGATION X,Y,Z
AERODYNAMIC CONTROL
CONTROL ALGORITHM Vx,Vy,Vz
DEFLECTION p,q,r,ay,az
THRUST VECTOR CONTROL COMMANDS

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 Thrust and Aerodynamic Data

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)
(23)

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 Input Control History

27 March 2019 Continued…

43
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Comparison with Experimental Flight Results – Velocity & FPA

This velocity and flight path angle Combination

27 March 2019
established the maximum range in experimental flight 45
Online Trajectory Optimization of an Air-to-air
Tactical Flight Vehicle (Midcourse Phase)
(Explicit Guidance)

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 Introduction

• Strategic Systems
• Surface to Surface Missiles aimed against the Strategic Targets.
• Further classified as SRBM, MRBM, IRBM, and ICBM based on the
Range Capability.

• Tactical Systems
• Primarily against the moving targets
• Surface to Air, Air to Air, Air to Surface

• Present Research
• Real Time Implementation for enhancing Range Capability with
available energy (Tactical Air to Air Engagement).
• Minimize Time of interception

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 Engagement of pursuer, evader and mother aircraft

•Beyond visual range (BVR) system

•During midcourse, mother aircraft tracks evader using radar

•Mother aircraft sends evader kinematics to pursuer using data link

•Data
27 March 2019link look angle freedom (onboard power constraint) 48
ONLINE REAL TIME TRAJECTORY OPTIMIZATION
(Trajectory Shaping Midcourse Guidance)

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 History of Evolution of Singular Perturbation
Control and its Application to Aerospace Problems
• First Application of SP Theory by Prandtl on Boundary Layer Theory
of Fluid Mechanics (1904)

• “Singular Perturbation” term used first by Wasow (Duke

Mathematician) (1942)

• Stiff Nonlinear ODE Solver for Nonlinear Dynamics by Tikhonov and

Students in Russia (1952)

• Abundant application of SP theory in Fluid Mechanics (1904-87)

• Kokotovic, Sanuti applied SP theory on Optimal Control (1968)

• Application of SP theory on Differential Game (Nash Game) (1976)

• High Performane Aircraft flight path optimization by Mehra (1979)

• Application of SP theory on Missile Guidance (Sridhar and Gupta

(1979), Cheng and Gupta (1986), Menon (1987), Sheu (1991),
Raikwar and Ghose (1998))
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 Typical Engagement Scenario of Tactical Flight Vehicle

Mother Aircraft

Pursuer

Midcourse Guidance
(onboard radar on mother aircraft)
DATA
Launch release phase LINK

Terminal homing
( 10 Km range to go,
seeker guidance starts)

• During midcourse, mother aircraft

tracks evader using radar

• Mother aircraft sends evader Evader

kinematics to pursuer using data link

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 Missile Target Air-to-Air Interception

Z
I Vt
Vm
Target
t
Mother aircraft
Missile
0 lma
30
t
lma

0,0,0
Y
I
X
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 Mathematical Modeling of SP Guidance

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 Control Variables (eta, sigma)
States (x, y, h, E,phi, gamma)

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 Singular
27 March 2019 Perturbation Based Midcourse Guidance Algorithm 60
 Real-Time Implementation

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 Validation of Algorithm with Experimental Flight Results

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 Validation of Results with Experimental Flight

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 Validation of Results with Experimental Flight

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 Conclusion (Continued).

Real Time Trajectory Optimization For Air-to-Air

Engagement
• Solution of Two Point Boundary Value Problem for Real Time
Application

• Design of Novel Algorithm For Real Time Application Using

SPC

• Include all in flight and terminal constraints

• Include Data link Field of View Constraint

• Validation in 6 DoF Platform

• Robustness study using Monte Carlo Simulation

• Success validation of the algorithm through consistency with

flight test

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 Conclusion (Continued).

Image Processing Based Guidance

(For Midcourse Guidance of Cruise Missile)

• Imaging Processing Based Guidance

 TERrain COntour Matching (TERCOM)
 Digita Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC)

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Introduction:

• A cruise missile is basically a small, pilotless airplane.

Cruise missiles have an 8.5-foot (2.61-meter) wingspan, are
powered by turbofan engines and can fly 500 to 1,000 miles
(805 to 1,610 km) depending on the configuration. A cruise
missile's job in life is to deliver a 1,000-pound (450-kg)
high-explosive bomb to a precise location -- the target.

Tomahawk Cruise missile

General design:
Types of guidance systems:

• Inertial navigation system

• TERCOM (Terrain Contour Matching)
• DSMAC (Digital Scene-Mapping Area Correlator)
• Satellite navigation
Inertial navigation system:
• An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer
and a platform containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, or
other motion-sensing devices.

• Accelerometers measure the vertical, lateral, and

longitudinal accelerations of the controlled missile .

• Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the system.

• Inertial navigation system:
Tercom(Terrain contour matching):
• It uses a pre-recorded contour map of the terrain that is
compared to measurements made during flight by an on-
board radar altimeter. (Altitude Matching)
• Altimeter measures Altitude from Terrain to missile
• The missile's radar altimeter feeds measurements into a
smaller buffer, and averages them out to produce a single
measurement based on couple of frame data.(Image
Correlation)
• The series of such numbers a strip of measurements similar
to those held in the maps. The two are compared to overlay
the strip on the known map, and the positioning of the strip
within the map produces a location and direction.
• The guidance system then uses this information to correct
the flight path of the missile.
Advantages:
•It has no propagated error like in INS
•Error is limited to Altimeter measurement accuracy (within meters)
•Eliminates need of Terminal Guidance

Disadvantages and system improvement

Photographs taken by aircraft are stored in missile OBC (Flight Planning Limited)
Needs huge Space in Missile Computer to store entire map
Current image is compared with stored image
Correlation technique of image processing used (1950)
Massive improvements in memory and processing power (1980)
Technological revolution in TERCOM
1. Modern systems store numerous images of a target as seen from different directions
2. Improvement in image processing algorithm
3. Complexity of the live imaging systems simplified through solid-state technologies
like CCDs.

 The combination of these technologies -> Digitized Scene-Mapping Area Correlator

(DSMAC).
• DSMAC (Terminal) + TERCOM (midcourse) guidance system (Conventional warheads)

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 DSMAC(Digital scene-mapping area
correlator):
• A series of photographs are taken from surveillance aircraft
and are put into a carousel in the missile.

• Another camera takes pictures out of the bottom of the

missile.

• A computer compares the two images and attempts to line

up areas of high contrast.

• This system is very slow and its role is being taken up by

DSMAC
Satellite navigation:
• Another way to navigate a cruise missile is by using a
satellite positioning system, such as GPS .

• Satellite navigation systems are precise and cheap.

• If the satellites are interfered with (e.g. destroyed) or if the

satellite signal is interfered with (e.g. jammed), the satellite
navigation system becomes inoperable.

• The GPS-based navigation is useful in a conflict with a

technologically unsophisticated adversary.
Integration of GPS and INS data
And different types of coupling
 Inertial Navigation System
The process of directing the movement of a rocket, ship, aircraft or other vehicle
from one point to another, which is based on sensing acceleration of the vehicle in
a known spatial direction by instruments which mechanize the Newton’s Laws of
Motion and integrating accelerometer to determine velocity and position’ (Pitman)

Newton’s law of motion

Gravity model
Body mounted accelerometer outputs integration for velocity and position
Gyro senses rotational motion of the body with respect to the inertial frame.
This gives rise to coordinate transformation between inertial and body frame
Continuous availability of vehicle position, velocity and attitude
No external source of information

Problem Areas

INS Initialization (Alignment problem)

Accelerometer and gyro bias

 NEED FOR AIDED SDINS
In The Unaided Systems
•Velocity and position errors grow w.r.t time of flight
•CEP is high and it demands a large warhead effectiveness
•Difficulties to perform in flight alignment
•Sensor noise effects cannot be reduced by calibration of
sensors during flight

Above difficulties can be overcome in an

AIDED SDINS
EXTERNAL AIDS
•GPS (Global Positioning System) For Position Aiding
•Tracking Radar and Radar Altimeters For Position Aiding
•Doppler Radar for Velocity Aiding
 METHODS OF RESETTING SDINS

•DIRECT RESETTING BASED ON MEASUREMENT OF EXTERNAL AIDS

•SLIDING LEAST SQUARE TECHNIQUE

•KALMAN BUCY FILTER

ADVANTAGES OF USING KALMAN FILTER

•Sequential Data Processing

•Gyro and Accelerometer noise can be treated as Process Noise

• Noise of the external aid can be easily treated as Measurement Noise.

•Covariance Propagation can take Model Replacement; Gyro &

accelerometer data can be fed into the model

•Real Time Implementation

 INS/GPS INTEGRATION APPROACHES
INS
Self contained and very accurate over short periods
No electromagnetic interference.
Almost no high frequency noise
Significant low-frequency errors that grow with time.

GPS
High frequency noise but good long term accuracy
Precise and reliable navigation aid
.

Hybrid Navigation

Data fusion of INS and GPS

Exploits individual strengths and offsets the weakness of the other.

 Major strength of INS is in orientation determination
Major strength of GPS is in positioning.

MEMS INS/GPS Logical Technology of present and near future

 Coupling Architecture

GPS aided INS (calibration and estimation of INS error)

Uncoupled GPS
Loosely coupled GPS (depending on extent of GPS coupling)
Tightly coupled GPS
 GPS Aided INS

Accurate 6DOF navigation, better than INS alone at low cost.

Enabling longer duration of INS operation

High rate output, navigation solution at higher bandwidth

Enhanced Redundancy and Integrity Management

Enhanced reliability and robustness

Improved signal output characteristics

Smooth and reliable operation under high dynamic environments

Saving in space, weight and life cycle cost

Improved CEP
Both sensors INS and GPS provide independent and redundant navigation solutions
Their data are fed to the Integration Processor (IP) to provide a single combined solution
(PVT)GPS are the GPS-derived position, velocity and time
 (PVA) INS are the INS derived position, velocity and attitude
 (PVA)estimates are the estimated positions, velocities and attitudes parameters.
IP can be as simple as a selector or as complex as a multimode KF
Easiest, fastest and potentially cheapest architecture
 Loosely Coupled Mode of INS/GPS Integration (continued1)
 Widely used in the past decade because of its high flexibility and performance
 Measurements for the filter are formulated by direct comparison of position
and velocities generated in INS and GPS processors generating error
residuals for the state vector of the Kalman filter.
 GPS measurement updates of position and velocity are generated by the
embedded KF in the GPS receiver.
 The integration Kalman filter includes error estimates that provide inflight
improvement of the INS calibration and alignment.
 Integration filter corrects the INS in a feedback manner, effects of biases and
misalignment errors get significantly decreased.

Features of loosely coupled approach include:

 Allows maximum use of off the shelf hardware and software that can be easily
assembled into a cascaded system without additional major development.
 Error feedback will bound the INS errors and is one of the significant
advantages especially for medium to low accuracy INS systems
 The position, velocity and attitude corrections to the INS mechanization
equations can be applied at the earliest, namely at the next epoch itself.
 GPS receiver can be treated as a “black box,” the system engineer need not
process the GPS variables. The system engineer can benefit from the GPS
measurements without any modification or knowledge of GPS.
 Loosely Coupled Mode of INS/GPS Integration (continued2)

 Drawbacks and limitations

 Lack of visibility into the GPS solution can turn into a drawback

 If any GPS outage (less than four satellites in view) or fault, no GPS
measurements will be processed, and therefore no updates and in flight
calibration of INS errors are possible.

 An additional filter involved. The processed GPS measurements are now a

function of the dynamics and correlations of the GPS internal filter, which are
largely unknown to the GPS/INS filter designer.

 The loosely coupled system is essentially a cascade of filters and the estimated
noise of the processed GPS measurements is not white noise, violating an
initial assumption of the Kalman filter and affects the solution. Results are
suboptimal solution and requires filter tuning.
Tightly Coupled Mode of INS/GPS Integration
 Tightly Coupled Mode of INS/GPS Integration (continued 1)
Kalman filters for the GPS receiver and the navigation are combined into single filter.

Tightly coupled approach combines all processing in to a single function.

Filter accepts raw GPS measurements of pseudorange and delta range directly.

Error states now include the INS error states (position, velocity, attitude, gyro drift,
accelerometer bias) as well as GPS receiver clock bias and drift.

The components of the filter state vector that represent INS errors are used to calibrate INS
and correct its estimates of position and velocity and DCM describing vehicle attitude.

The filter estimates of clock bias and drift are used to correct the GPS measurements.

INS derived estimate of pseudorange and range rate is formed using ephemeris data,
INS position and velocity data and estimated GPS receiver clock errors.

This predicted pseudorange and Doppler are combined with the receiver output data to
Form residuals that drive the navigation filter.

Outputs from the Kalman filter and INS can also be used to aid the satellite tracking loops
in the GPS receiver.
 Tightly Coupled Mode of INS/GPS Integration (continued 2)

The benefits of this type of integration

Hardware implementation is simpler and less expensive.

INS/GPS navigator can be made small and requires less power

More direct exploitation of the fundamental measurement data

More direct aiding of the receiver tracking process by the filter and INS

A higher likelihood of maintaining firm satellite tracks

Better resiliency to poor satellite geometry, high vehicle dynamics,

data dropouts, IMU errors, and jamming

Resultant navigation performance is superior

 Present Architecture of Tightly Coupled GPS

Feed Forward Filter Mechanization with INS data As control input

and GPS or Tracking Radara Data As measurements
SFV Trajectory with and without sensor bias (1300 m impact error)
(Accelerometer bias = 1000 micro g, Gyro bias = 20 deg/hr)
 Conclusion

• Implicit Guidance vs Explicit Guidance

• Evolve Pitch Program by offline Trajectory Optimization
 Pitch Program Tracked by Theta Tracker as Implicit
Guidance During Ascent Phase
• Discuss SP based Explicit Guidance (Air To air Application)
• TERCOM and DSMAC image processing based guidance
• INS GPS integration as best state of the art hybrid navigation

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 Acknowledgement

•Dr M Manickavasagam (Project Director(A1P), ASL)

•Prof Debashis Ghose (Aerospace Engg, IISc)
•Prof M R Ananthasayanam (Superannuated, IISc)

THANK YOU FOR

PATIENT HEARING

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