BMM 2543

Fluid Mechanics II
 Chapter 2
The boundary layer approximation
(Refer Section 10.6 in Yunus A. Cengel)

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Boundary layer Characteristics

- Displacement thickness
- Momentum thicknesses
2.3. Boundary layer equations
- Exact solution
- Approximate solutions
 2.1. Introduction

3
Prandtl’s
boundary layer
concept splits
the flow into an
outer flow
region and a
thin boundary
layer region
(not to scale).

Boundary layer approximation

(a) A huge gap exists between the Euler equation
(which allows slip at walls) and the Navier–Stokes
equation (which supports the no-slip condition); (b)
the boundary layer approximation bridges that gap.
Divides the flow into two regions:
an outer flow region that is inviscid
and/or irrotational, and
an inner flow region called a
boundary layer—a very thin region
of flow near a solid wall where
viscous forces and rotationality
cannot be ignored
Introduction, cont’d…

The character of the flow should depend on the various dimensionless

parameters involved. For typical external flows the most important of these
parameters are the Reynolds number, the Mach number, and Froude
number.
For the present, we consider how the external flow and its associated lift
and drag vary as a function of Reynolds number. Recall that the Reynolds
number represents the ratio of inertial effects to viscous effects.

In the absence of all viscous effects (μ = 0) the Reynolds number is infinite,

thus we can say that flows with large Reynolds number (Re > 100) are
dominated by inertial effects.
On the other hand, in the absence of all inertial effects (negligible mass or
ρ = 0), the Reynolds number is zero, and we can say that the flows with
small Reynolds number (Re < 1) are dominated by viscous effects.
Generally, flow past the objects can be illustrated by considering flows past
two objects - one a flat plate parallel to the upstream velocity and the other
a circular cylinder.
Introduction, cont’d…

If the Reynolds
number is small (Re =
0.1), the viscous
effects are relatively
strong and the plate
affects the uniform
upstream flow far
ahead, above, below,
and behind the plate.

Flow parallel to the plate with low Re

In low Reynolds number flows the viscous effects are felt far from the object in all
directions.
Introduction, cont’d…

As the Reynolds
number is increased
(by increasing U, for
example), the region in
which viscous effects
are important
becomes smaller in all
directions except
downstream.

Flow parallel to the plate with medium Re

The streamlines are displaced from their original uniform upstream conditions,
but the displacement is not as great as for the Re = 0.1.
Introduction, cont’d…

If the Reynolds
number is large (but
not infinite), the flow
is dominated by
inertial effects and
the viscous effects
are negligible
everywhere except in
a region very close to
the plate and in the
relatively thin wake
region behind the
plate.
Flow parallel to the plate with high Re

Since the fluid viscosity is not zero, it follows that the fluid must stick to the solid
surface (the no-slip boundary condition). There is a thin boundary layer region of
thickness δ = δ(x). The thickness of this layer increases in the direction of flow,
starting from zero at the leading edge of the plate. The flow within the boundary
layer may be laminar or turbulent, depending on various parameters involved.
Character of the steady,
viscous flow past a
circular cylinder:
(a) low Re flow,
(b) moderate Re flow,
(c) large Re number flow.
If the Reynolds number is large enough, viscous effects are important only
in the boundary layer regions near the object (and in the wake region
behind the object).
Outside of the boundary layer the velocity gradients normal to the flow are
relatively small, and the fluid acts as if it were inviscid, even though the
viscosity is not zero.
A necessary condition for this structure of the flow is that the Reynolds
number be large or we can say that enough Reynolds number.
we consider the boundary layer is formed on an infinitely long flat plate along which
flows a viscous and incompressible fluid.
If the Reynolds number is sufficiently large, only the fluid in a relatively thin
boundary layer on the plate will feel the effect of the plate.
For a finite length plate, it is clear that the plate length, l, can be used as the
characteristic length. For an infinitely long plate we use x, the coordinate distance
along the plate from the leading edge, as the characteristic length and define the Re
as Rex = Ux/v. If the plate is sufficiently long, the Re = Ul/v is sufficiently large so
that the flow takes on its boundary layer character.

Consider a fluid particle that flows into the

boundary layer:
1) A small rectangular particle retains its
original shape as it flows in the uniform
flow outside of the boundary layer.
2) The particle begins to distort because of
the velocity gradient within the boundary
layer—the top of the particle has a larger
speed than its bottom.

The fluid particles do not rotate as they flow along outside the boundary layer, but
they begin to rotate once they pass through the fictitious boundary layer surface
and enter the world of viscous flow. The flow is said to be irrotational outside the
boundary layer and rotational within the boundary layer.
At some distance downstream from the
leading edge, the boundary layer flow
becomes turbulent and the fluid particles
become greatly distorted because of the
random, irregular nature of the turbulence.

One of the distinguishing features of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular

mixing of fluid parcels that range in size from the smallest fluid particles up to those
comparable in size with the object of interest.
For laminar flow, mixing occurs only on the molecular scale. This molecular scale is
orders of magnitude smaller in size than typical size scales for turbulent flow mixing.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a critical value of the
Reynolds number, Rexcr, on the order of 2×105 to 3×106, depending on the
roughness of the surface and the amount of turbulence in the upstream flow.
Example 12

In the figure shown below, choose whether the statement is true or false
(a) At a give x-location, if Re were to increase, the boundary layer thickness would
also increase.
(b) As outer flow velocity increases, so does the boundary layer thickness
(c) As the fluid viscosity increases, so does the boundary layer thickness
(d) As the fluid density increases, so does the boundary layer thickness

Outer
Flow
Example 13

For flow over a flat plate, develop linear and parabolic velocity
equations inside the laminar boundary layer.

Outer
Flow
2.2. Boundary Layer Characteristic
Boundary Layer Thickness (δ)

In boundary layer theory, we get V = 0 at y = 0 and at

y = δ, with the velocity profile, u = u(x,y ) bridging the
boundary layer thickness.
When uU we get farther from the plate; it is not
precisely u = U at y = δ.
We define the boundary layer thickness, δ, as that
distance from the plate at which the fluid velocity is
within some arbitrary value of the upstream velocity.

 y where u  0.99U

WHY 99%? NOT 98% OR…

Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness (δ*)

There are two velocity

profiles for flow past a flat
plate – one if there were no
viscosity (a uniform profile)
and the other if there are
viscosity and zero slip at
the wall (the boundary
layer profile).

Because of the velocity deficit, U – u, within the boundary layer, the flowrate across
section b-b is less than that across section a-a. However, if we displace the plate at
section a-a by an appropriate amount δ*, the boundary layer displacement
thickness, the flowrates across each section will be identical.
Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness (δ*)


This is true if:  * bU   U  u b dy
0

Where b is the plate width. Thus;

 u
*   1  dy
0
 U
 Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness (δ*)

We can say that:

The displacement thickness represents the amount that the

thickness of the body must be increased so that the fictitious
uniform inviscid flow has the same mass flowrate.
It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines
caused by the viscous effects on the plate.
This idea allows us to simulate the presence that the boundary
layer has on the flow outside of the boundary layer by adding
the displacement thickness to the actual wall and treating the
flow over the thickened body as an inviscid flow.
 Displacement Thickness (δ*) (Extra Note)

Streamlines within and outside a boundary layer must bend slightly

outward away from the wall in order to satisfy conservation of mass as the
boundary layer thickness grows downstream.

This is because the y-component of velocity, υ, is small but finite and

positive.

Outside of the boundary layer,

the outer flow is affected by this
deflection of the streamlines.
Thus, we define displacement
thickness, δ* as the distance
that a streamline just outside of
the boundary layer is deflected.
Displacement Thickness (δ*) (Extra Note)

We can conclude that:

“Displacement thickness is the distance that a streamline just outside of
the boundary layer is deflected away from the wall due to the effect of the
boundary layer”.

“Displacement thickness is the imaginary increase in thickness of the

wall, as seen by the outer flow, due to the effect of the growing boundary
layer”
 Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness (θ)

The boundary layer momentum

thickness, θ, is often used when
determining the drag on an object.

Again because of the velocity deficit,

U – u in the boundary layer, the
momentum flux across section b–b
in is less than that across section a–
a. This deficit in momentum flux for
the actual boundary layer flow is
given by;


 uU  u dA  b0 uU  u dy
which by definition is the momentum flux in a layer of
uniform speed U and thickness θ. That is
 u u 
  0  1 dy
bU θ  b  u U  u dy
2
or U U 
0
Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness (θ)

*
H

 Summary

WHAT IS BOUNDARY LAYER?

BOUNDARY LAYER vs Re?

BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS?

BOUNDARY LAYER DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS?

 u
 *   1  dy
0
 U

BOUNDARY LAYER MOMENTUM THICKNESS?

 u  u
  0 1  dy
U U
Example 14 :

For each of the velocity profiles give below, determine

the boundary layer displacement thickness, momentum
 ), and the ratio *
*
thickness, shape factor (
 
u y
a.  for y   , and u  U for y  δ
U 
2
u 2y  y 
b.  -  for y   , and u  U for y  δ
U   
1
u y 7
c.   for y   , and u  U for y  δ
U  
 EXACT METHOD APPROXIMATION METHOD

Also called Also called

BLASIUS SOLUTION MOMENTUM INTEGRAL

SOLUTION
Or
VON-KARMAN SOLUTION
Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution
 The flow investigation shall be made here by assuming that:

1. the flow is steady,

2. The x-velocity component gradient along the x-direction is

much lower than the gradient along the y-direction
3. the flow is laminar and Newtonian

4. The x-velocity component is much much higher than the y-

veloicy component
5. The pressure gradient is zero

6. The gravitational effects neglected

Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

In theory, the details of viscous, incompressible flow past any object can be
obtained by solving the governing Navier-Stokes equations. Which are;

In x-direction:

 u u u u  p   2u  2u  2u 
   u    w     g x    2  2  2 
 t x y z  x  x y z 

In y-direction:
      p   2  2  2 
  u   w     g y    2  2  2 
 t x y z  y  x y z 

In z-direction:

 w w w w  p  2w 2w 2w 

  u   w     g z    2  2  2 
 t x y z  z  x y z 
 Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Reducing Navier-Stokes
x - component :
 v x v x v x v x  p   2vx  2vx  2vx 
   vx  vy  vz       2  2  2   g x
 t x y z  x  x y z 
y - component :
 v y v y v y v y  p   2v y  2v y  2v y 
   vx  vy  vz       2  2  2   g y
 t x y z  y  x y z 
z - component :
 v z v z v z v z  p   2vz  2vz  2vz 
   vx  vy  vz       2  2  2   g z
 t x y z  z  x y z 
v y  vx Zero
Steady Two v x v pressure No
 x v y v y
state Dimensional x y  0, 0 gradient gravity
Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Physically, the flow is primarily parallel to the plate and any fluid property is
convected downstream much more quickly than it is diffused across the
streamlines. Thus, the governing equation (Eq. 3.6a, 3.6b and 3.7) reduce to the
following boundary layer equations;

u 
 0
x y These equations called
“Boundary Layer Equations” in
u   2u partial differential equation.
u  v 2
x y y

In general, the solutions of the boundary layer equations, (Eqs. 3.8 and 3.9) are
extremely difficult to obtain. However, by applying a clever coordinate
transformation and change of variables, Blasius reduced the partial differential
equations to an ordinary differential equation that he was able to solve.
Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

It can be argued that in dimensionless form the boundary layer velocity profiles on
a flat plate should be similar regardless of the location along the plate. That is

u  y
 g 
U  

gy   is an unknown function to be determined.

By applying an order of magnitude analysis of the forces acting on fluid within

the boundary layer, it can be shown that the boundary layer thickness;
12
 vx 
  
U 

In analyzing the boundary layer, two parameters have been introduced:

1) The dimensionless similarity variable   U vx1 2 y (eta)

2) The stream function   vxU 1 2 f ( )

Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

The velocity components for two-dimensional flow are given in terms of the stream
function as;

u   y     x

For this flow, the velocity components in x and y direction become:

u  Uf ( )
12
 vU 
   f   f 
 4x 

Then substitute Eqs. 3.14 and 3.15 into governing boundary layer equation (Eqs.
3.8 and 3.9) to obtain the following nonlinear, third-order ordinary differential
equation:
2 f   ff   0 with boundary conditions are:
Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

The ordinary differential equation (Eq. 3.16) is easy to solve using computer.
The dimensionless boundary layer profile, u/U = f’ (η) obtained by numerical
solution of Eq. 3.16 and its boundary condition.
The result is tabulated in Table 3.1.

Value of dimensionless similarity variable (η) and boundary layer profile for
Blasius solution.
Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

From the solution it is found that u U  0.99 when η = 5.0. Thus:

 5
 5
vx or 
U x Re x

It can also be shown that the displacement and momentum thickness are
given by;
* 1.721

x Re x

θ 0.664

x Re x

If the velocity profile known, it is an easy matter to determine the wall shear
stress,  w   (u y ) y 0 , where the velocity gradient is evaluated at the
plate. The value of u y at y = 0 can be obtained from the Blasius solution to
give

 w  0.332U 32
x
Example 15

Atmospheric air at 25 oC flows parallel to a flat plate at velocity of

U = 3m/s. Using the exact Blasius solution, estimate the boundary
thickness and the local skin friction coefficient at x =1 m from the
leading edge of the plate.

w
C fr 
1 U 2
2
 How to obtain the BL thickness ( ) value?

BL
Thickness

EXACT METHOD APPROXIMATION METHOD

Also called Also called

BLASIUS SOLUTION MOMENTUM INTEGRAL

SOLUTION
Or
5x 1.721x VON-KARMAN SOLUTION
 * 
Re x Re x

θ
0.664 x 
 w  0.332U 32
Re x x
Momentum Integral Technique
One of the important aspects of boundary layer theory is the determination of
the drag caused by shear forces on a body. The drag parameter can be
obtained from the governing differential equations for laminar boundary layer
flow.
Since these solutions are extremely difficult to obtain, it is of interest to have
an alternative approximate method which is the momentum integral method.
It has been found that the drag force acting on the plate is relate to the rate of
momentum change and it can be analyzed based on diagram below:
VON-KARMAN BL SOLUTION

Velocity
Profiles

Turbulent Flow

1n
u  y
 
U  

7 Re x  10 7

n  8 10 7  Re x  10 8
9 10 8  Re x  10 9

 VON-KARMAN BL SOLUTION

BL
Thickness

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Stpe1. Obtain the expression

for  in terms of 
Step 2. Obtain the shear stress
from

Step 3. Obtain the shear stress

from

Step 4. Equate the shear stress

expressions from steps 3 &
4, and solve for 
Momentum Integral Technique: Example 1

Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0.

The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = U y/δ for 0 ≤ y ≤ δ
and u = U for y > δ, as is shown in Figure. Determine the shear stress by using
the momentum integral equation. Compare with Blasius solution.
From the momentum displacement equation

 u u  u  u   y  y
θ 1  dy   1  dy    1  dy
0 
0 U U 0 U U    

Then we get:


θ
6
Note that as yet we do not know the value of δ. By combining Eqs. A1, A2 and
A3 we obtain the following differential equation for δ:

U U 2 d 6
 or  d  dx
 6 dx U
This can be integrated from the leading edge of the plate, x = 0 (where δ = 0) to
an arbitrary location x where the boundary layer thickness is δ. The result is

2 6 vx
 x or   3.46
2 U U
The wall shear stress can also be obtained by combining Eqs. A1, A3 and A4
to give


 w  0.289U 3 2
x
Momentum Integral Technique

Typical approximate
boundary layer profiles
used in the momentum
integral equation
Momentum Integral Technique

Flat Plate Momentum Integral Results for various Assumed Laminar Flow
Velocity Profile
 How to obtain the BL thickness ( ) value?

BL
Thickness

EXACT METHOD APPROXIMATION METHOD

Also called Also called

BLASIUS SOLUTION MOMENTUM INTEGRAL

SOLUTION
Or
5x 1.721x VON-KARMAN SOLUTION
 * 
Re x Re x

θ
0.664 x 
 w  0.332U 32
Re x x
Turbulent Boundary Layer
For turbulent boundary layer flow we have two methods for obtaining the boundary
layer characteristics: power-law form combined with empirical result and empirical
form. However, for theoretical determination of boundary layer characteristics we
are concentrating on power-law form.
The power-law form is:

7 Re x  10 7

1n
u  y
  n  8 10 7  Re x  10 8
U   9
 10 8  Re x  10 9

Von Karman’s integral equation can now be applied following the steps used for
laminar flow.
The power-law form yields; (u y) y 0  
 VON-KARMAN BL SOLUTION

BL
Thickness

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Stpe1. Obtain the expression Stpe1. Obtain the expression

for  in terms of  for  in terms of 
Step 2. Obtain the shear stress Step 2. Obtain the shear stress
from from

Step 3. Obtain the shear stress Step 3. Obtain the shear stress
from 14
from  v 
 w  0.0225U 2  
 U 
Step 4. Equate the shear stress Step 4. Equate the shear stress
expressions from steps 3 & expressions from steps 3 &
4, and solve for  4, and solve for 
Turbulent Boundary Layer
So rather than using  w  (  u y) y 0 , we use an empirical relation of the
Blasius formula which relates the local skin friction coefficient to the boundary layer
thickness;
14
 v 
c f  0.0458  
 U 

Using equation 3.35, which is relating τw and cf ;

w
cf 
1
2
U 2

Thus, we can show that the shear stress relation is

14
 v 
 w  0.0225U  
2

 U 
Turbulent Boundary Layer

From Von Karman’s integral equation, we can show that:

dθ
 w  U 2 yields
dx

d  2 u  u
 w   U 1  dy
dx 0 U U

Hence we can determine second expression for shear stress by substitute the
velocity profile of equation 3.40 into equation 3.43.

d  2 y 

17
 y 
17
w   U   1     dy
dx 0        

7 2 d
 U
72 dx
Turbulent Boundary Layer

Combining two expression of shear stress (Eqs 3.42 and 3.44) yields;
14
v
 14
d  0.231  dx
U 
Integrate Equation 3.45 yields
15
 v 
  0.37 x 
 Ux 
1 5
 0.37 x Re x for Re x  10 7

Substituting equation 3.46 into equation 3.41, we find that

1 5
c f  0.058 Re x for Re x  10 7
Turbulent Boundary Layer

And performing the required integration, there results for coefficient of drag, with
n=7

1 5
c f  0.072 Re l for Re x  10 7

The relations above can be stretched to Rex = 10 8 without substantial error. If L is

not much larger that xT, say L = 3xT , then there is a significant laminar portion on
the leading part of a flat plate, thus;

1 5 1
c f  0.073 Rel  1700 Re L for Re L  10 7

This relationship is based on transition occurring at Recrit = 5 × 10 5. If Recrit = 3 ×

10 5, the constant of 1700 is replaced by 1060; if Recrit = 6 × 10 5, it becomes
2080.
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Finally, the displacement thickness and momentum thickness can be evaluated
for n = 7, to be

1 5
 *  0.0475x Rex

1 / 5
θ  0.037 x Re x
Summary
BL Thickness
Calculation

EXACT METHOD APPROXIMATION METHOD

Also called Also called

BLASIUS SOLUTION MOMENTUM INTEGRAL

SOLUTION
Or
5x 1.721x VON-KARMAN SOLUTION
 * 
Re x Re x

θ
0.664 x 
 w  0.332U 32
Re x x
 VON-KARMAN BL SOLUTION

BL
Thickness

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Stpe1. Obtain the expression Stpe1. Obtain the expression

for  in terms of  for  in terms of 
Step 2. Obtain the shear stress Step 2. Obtain the shear stress
from from

Step 3. Obtain the shear stress Step 3. Obtain the shear stress
from 14
from  v 
 w  0.0225U 2  
 U 
Step 4. Equate the shear stress Step 4. Equate the shear stress
expressions from steps 3 & expressions from steps 3 &
4, and solve for  4, and solve for 
 Tutorial questions:
Boundary layer theory
Example 16

With the aid of diagram, explain the following terms about the
boundary layer;
a. Boundary Layer thickness,
b. Boundary layer momentum thickness,
 Example 17

Consider a flat plate 15 cm wide and 45 m long placed longitudinally

in a stream of oil (specific gravity 0.925 and kinematic viscosity
0.9x10-4 m2/s) flowing with a free stream velocity of 60 cm/s. Using
the following velocity profile and using Von-Karman method,
1
calculate,
u y 9
 
U  
i) the thickness of the boundary layer at the trailing edge (x=45 m),
ii) the mass flowrate crossing the BL at the trailing edge, and
iii) the drag force at the trailing edge (on the top surface).
iv) Calculate the percentage error for the boundary layer thickness
compared to the exact solution.
 END OF
CHAPTER TWO