Chapter 22

Andreas –f – Molisch
(Read explanation from text book.)
Principle of Relaying
• Dedicated relays relays that never act as source or destination of
the information, but whose sole purpose is to facilitate the information
exchange of other nodes.
• Peer nodes acting as relays  mobile handsets or sensor nodes, can
change their roles depending on the situation at hand – sometimes
they help to forward information and sometimes they act as a source
or destination.
Fundamentals of Relaying
• Fundamental Protocols
(assuming relaying node operates in half
duplex mode)
• In Amplify-and-Forward (AF), the relay amplifies
the received signal by a certain factor, and
retransmits it.
• In Decode-and-Forward (DF), the relay decodes
the packet and then subsequently re-encodes and retransmits it.
• Compress-and-Forward (CF), the relay creates a quantized (compressed) version of
the signal it obtains from the source and forwards that to the destination; the
destination combines this compressed signal with the directly transmitted signal
from the source.
Routing and Resource Allocation in Multi-Hop
Networks
• Dijkstra Algorithm
Goals and Classifications of Routing Protocols
• Goals
(i) the energy consumption for the forwarding of the information should be
kept as small as possible
(ii) the lifetime of the network, i.e., the time until the first node runs out of
battery power, should be maximized,
(iii) the protocol should be distributed, i.e., not require centralized control
(iv) the protocol should be able to react quickly to changes in the topology
or link states,
(v) the protocol should be bandwidth efficient, i.e., achieve high throughput
in the bandwidth allocated to the network
(vi) the end-to-end transmission time (delay) should be minimized.
Taking the changing topology and link states into account routing can
be done in one of the following two ways:
(i) proactive: in this case, the network keeps track of the optimum
routes from all possible sources to all possible destinations at all times.
Thus, the actual transmission of packets can be done very quickly, as
the optimum route is immediately available. On the downside, the
overhead required to keep track of all the routes can be significant.
(ii) reactive: in this approach, a route to a destination is only
determined when there is actually a packet to be sent to that particular
destination, i.e., on demand. This approach is more efficient, but clearly
leads to a slower delivery of packets.
Source Routing
• Each information generating node can determine the path in which
the packet flows.
• Sequence of nodes are added to the packet so that every node will
know the details of next node.
• Loop free
• In proactive source routing ,link state information is propagated
throughout the network.
• If there is a new node its information is updated in the table and
forwarded to neighbors.
• Information overhead
• In dynamic source routing(DSR) , its on demand routing.
• The routing procedure consists of two steps: an initial route discovery, followed by route
maintenance that reacts to changes in the link states in the network.
• During the route discovery, the network is flooded with so-called route request packets.
• The route request contains the Identification (ID) of the intended information destination, a
unique packet ID, as well as a list of nodes that have already been visited by the message.
• When a node receives a route request packet, it checks whether it is either the intended
destination or has a path to the destination stored in its own routing table.
• If that is not the case, the node rebroadcasts the route request, adding its own address to the list
of visited nodes in the message.
• If the node is the destination (or has a path to the destination), then the node answers with a
route reply packet, which tracks back along the identified path to the source, and finally informs
the source about the sequence of nodes that have to be taken from source to destination
• During DSR if the link is broken ,either another stored route is used or
route discovery process happens again.
• Problem with DSR is reply storm. I,e if lot of neighbors know the root
to the target , they try to send the information simultaneously .
• Results in waste of network resources.
Link state based routing
• Link state advertisements (state of the link) is sent to every other
nodes in the network.
• It contains following details:
• the ID of the node that is creating the advertisement,
• the nodes to which the advertising node is connected, as well as the link
quality (edge weights) of that link,
• the sequence number, which indicates how “fresh” the information is (the
sequence number is incremented every time the node sends out a new
advertisement).
• Based on this information, a node can then construct the most
efficient routes through the network to all other nodes,by means of
the Dijkstra algorithm.
Optimized Link State Routing Protocol(OLSR)
• Popular algorithm used in wireless network is OLSR(optimized link
state routing protocol).Its a proactive protocol.
• In OLSR ,it uses a concept of MPR(Multi point relays)
• it limits the neighbor set to two hop neighbors and link state
information to only those neighbors.
• The set of MPR for one node will be subset of one hop neighbors.
• One hop neighbors all selected in such a way that there will be only
one route to reach two hop neighbors.
Distance Vector Routing
• Uses Bellman – Ford algorithm
• In distance vector routing, each node maintains a list of all
destinations that only contains the cost of getting to that destination,
and the next node to send the message to.
• Thus, the source node only knows to which node to hand the packet,
which in turn knows the next node, and so on.
• This approach has the advantage of vastly reduced storage costs
compared to link-state algorithms
Drawbacks
• Slow convergence: compared to Dijkstra algorithm, Bellman - Ford
algorithm requires multiple pass ,in the fast changing network
topology the topology may change before the optimized route is set
up.
• Count to infinity:
solution
• A solution of the counting-to-infinity problem can be obtained by means of
destination sequences, resulting in the DSDV (Destination-Sequenced
Distance Vector) algorithm.
• For this case, the nodes store not only the cost of getting to the
destination and the next node on the route but also a sequence number.
• Each node then periodically advertises routes to other destinations; the
destination increases the sequence number and propagates the route to
other nodes in the network.
• The route that is selected is the one with the largest sequence number in
the network. If a link is broken, the sequence number is increased and the
node cost is increased to infinity.
• This change is immediately propagated to other nodes.
• The Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV ) routing algorithm is
the reactive version of DSDV.
• Routes are built up using route requests and route replies (similar to
DSR): when a source needs to send a packet to a destination for
which it does not already have a route, it broadcasts a route request.
• Nodes that hear this request update their information for the source
node and set up backward pointers to the source node in the route
tables.
• If the node has a route to the destination, it replies to the source;
otherwise, it broadcasts the information to further nodes.
HIERACHICAL ROUTING
• LEACH routing protocol arranges the nodes in
the network into small clusters and chooses
one of them as the cluster-head. Node first
senses its target and then sends the relevant
information to its cluster-head.
• Then the cluster head aggregates and
compresses the information received from all
the nodes and sends it to the base station.
• The nodes chosen as the cluster head drain
out more energy as compared to the other
nodes as it is required to send data to the base
station which may be far located.
 Geographical Routing
• Some routing protocols make use of geographical
information, such as GPS coordinates. Typically, nodes
communicate their location through the network, so that
other nodes can determine the shortest path. Using
geographical information makes it possible to select the
truly shortest path. Furthermore, one only needs an
(geographical) address to contact a host.
• The disadvantage is, obviously, that each node has to
know its location. In some environments, a GPS receiver
can be used to obtain the location. However, GPS
receivers are expensive and consume relatively much
power.
 DATA DRIVEN ROUTING :DIRECTED DIFFUSION
• The monitoring station (sink)
requests data by sending out an
interest message, which contains
specifics of the type of information
that it wants, intervals at which the
data are to be collected, and
geographical area.
• The message is propagated
throughout the network; during this
propagation, the nodes also set up
gradients, i.e., reply links toward the
nodes from which the interest
statement was received.
• The transmission of data occurs in three steps: advertising, request,
and data transmission.
• In the advertising step, a node uses meta-data to advertise the
existence of new data; in the request stage, the recipient requests the
data if they are useful (e.g., not already collected from another node
that has similar/correlated data), and in the data transmission stage,
the actual data are sent.
PROS AND CONS OF NODE MOBILITY
• PROS: Imagine that a data packet has to be sent from node A to node B, both of which are static,
and widely separated. Node A then transmits the packet to a highly mobile node C when it is
passing by node A. Node C stores the message, and when it comes into the vicinity of node B,
transmits it. Thus, the large distance between nodes A and B can be bridged without either high
transmit power for direct transmission, or multiple transmissions.

• The key drawback of high node mobility is that the network can become temporarily
disconnected, especially in sparse networks, where there are only few possible routes between a
source and a destination.

• A routing algorithm that takes account of the node mobility is “epidemic routing.”
• Whenever two nodes come into range of each other, they exchange all the packets that they do
not have in common. In this way, every packet is ultimately distributed to every node in the
network. This approach is quite wasteful of resources.
Power allocation strategies
• Routes fixed transmission rate fixed : Every node should transmit at a
power which ensures SNR at sink is high.
• Routes fixed transmission rate is variable : Ensures on time delivery of
packet at the destination and also conserves energy
• Routes and transmission rate are both variable