Qualitative Research

Week 6
 Learning Outcomes
Introduction to qualitative research
1. Understanding Qualitative Research
2. Qualitative Research Purpose and Questions
3. Qualitative Research – Literature Review
4. Qualitative Research Design
– Research philosophy (Constructivism / Interpretivism)
– Research approach (deductive/Inductive)
– Research strategy
– Developing moderator’s guide
– Purposive sampling

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 Recommended Reference Books

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 Qualitative and Quantitative
Qualitative
1. The Role of Auditing in the Management of Corporate
Fraud: A qualitative study in Malaysia
Sample Titles

2. Barriers to Entrepreneurship success: A qualitative

study among fresh graduates in Malaysia

Quantitative
1. Entrepreneurship barriers and entrepreneurial
inclination: A quantitative study among Malaysian
postgraduate students
2. Behavioral finance towards future investment decision
among Accounting undergraduates in K. Lumpur

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 Definition
Qualitative research is an
inquiry approach in which the
inquirer:
• explores a central phenomenon (one key
concept)
• asks participants broad, general questions
• collects detailed views of participants in the
form of words or images

Subjective (adapted from Creswell 2002, p. 58)

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 Definition

‘Qualitative data refers to all non-numeric data or

data that have not been quantified and can be a
product of all research strategies’
Saunders et al. (2009)
• Attends to description of how vs. how many
• Is an inductive and open process: the investigator
builds concepts, hypotheses, and theories from analysis
of the data.
• The data collection and analysis process is iterative.
• The investigator returns to the data with new questions
and ideas to explore until there is a very deep
understanding of the phenomenon / issue.

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 Qualitative Research
• Seeing through the eyes of the people being
studied
• Qualitative Research…involves finding out what
people think, and how they feel - or at any rate,
what they say they think and how they say they
feel.
• This kind of information is subjective. It
involves feelings and impressions, rather than
numbers’
Example: investigate employees absenteeism
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 Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Type of questions Probing Limited probing
Words Numbers
Sample Size Small Large
Info. Per respondent Much Varies
Deep Probing
Admin Requires skilled Fewer specialist skills required
researcher
Data Collection Interview Survey
Observation Experiment
Type of Analysis Subjective, Objective
interpretative Statistical Standardized
Type of research Inductive Deductive
Exploratory Descriptive or causal

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 Qualitative Research Process
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Written Record
(Thesis, book, report, article etc)
Data Analysis Approach
(Hermeneutics, semiotics,
content analysis etc)
Data Collection Technique
(interviews, focus group,
observation, documents etc)
Research Method
(action research, case study,
ethnography, grounded theory
etc)
Philosophical Assumptions
(positivist, interpretive, pragmatic)
Title of Slides Dr Jugindar Singh
 Chapter 1: Qualitative
1.1 1.1 Background
1.2 Problem Statement CHAPTER 1
1.3 Purpose
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Research Hypothesis

1.6 Significance
1.7 Scope
1.8 Limitations
1.9 Definition of Terms
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 Problem, Purpose, and Questions
Example
General Topic Service quality and customer satisfaction

Competition among Hotels. Customer

Research satisfaction is critical. Retention of
Problem customers is low. No research done in
Brunei
Purpose To study the components of service quality
that can lead to customer satisfaction and
Statement
retention

Research What are the factors that contribute customer

satisfaction and retention of customers of
Question
Specific luxury hotels in Brunei?

3.11
Example: Service quality and customer satisfaction: Dr Jugindar Singh

Qualitative research of luxury hotels in Brunei

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 Research Problem
A research problem is a statement about an area of
concern, a condition, to be improved upon, a difficulty
to be eliminated, or a troubling question, that exist in
scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice, that points to
the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation (Labaree, 2013).
What is the issue or problem? Identify an issue
• Research-based research problems
• Practical problems

Identify any deficiencies in evidence

• What do we still need to know?
• What else do we need to know to improve practice?
Dr Jugindar Singh
3.12
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 Purpose Statement

intend to accomplish”
want to do the study and what you
purpose statement indicates “why you
According to Locke et al. (2007), the
• The purpose statement
– Is the central controlling idea in a study
– Is written in a sentence or several sentences
– Sets the objectives, the intent, or the major
idea of a proposal or a study
• The purpose statement is NOT
– The problem leading to a need for the study
– The questions to be answered by collecting
data
A good qualitative purpose statement contains
information about the central phenomenon
explored in the study, the participants in the
study and the research site. It also conveys an
emerging design and uses research words
drawn from the language of qualitative inquiry
(Schwandt. 2007).
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 Purpose:
Here is a script for a good qualitative purpose statement:
“The purpose of this qualitative study (replace later
with type of qualitative tradition) will be to
______(understand, describe, develop, discover)
the ________(central focus) for
_______(participants: person, process, groups) at
______________(site)."

Examples:
1. The Role of Internal Auditing in the Management of
Corporate Fraud in Financial Institutions in Malaysia

The purpose of this qualitative study will be to

understand the impact of internal auditing in the
management of Corporate frauds in Financial
Institutions in Malaysia
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 Service quality and customer satisfaction:
Qualitative research of luxury hotels in KL

The purpose of this qualitative study is to determine

whether luxury hotel managers and luxury hotel
customers have the same understanding of service
quality and satisfaction and whether there is a disparity
Example

between services offered by luxury hotels and,

indirectly, by managers – and the way customers
actually experience them

“The purpose of this qualitative study (replace later with

type of qualitative tradition) will be to ______(understand,
describe, develop, discover) the ________(central focus)
for _______(participants: person, process, groups) at
______________(site)."
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 Research questions
These research questions assume two forms:
 Central question
• a broad question that asks for an exploration of the
central phenomenon or concept in a study
 Sub questions
– Sub-divides central question into more specific
topics questions
– Limited number
Begin the research questions with the words what or how
to convey an open and emerging design
Use Verbs like: To explore.. To Discover….
Do not use Verbs lime Relate, Influence, Impact, Cause,
Effect (quantitative)
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 Scripts to help design qualitative
central questions and sub-questions:

Central Question Script: (usually write only one)

“What does it mean to ______________ (central
phenomenon)?”

“How would _________ (participants) describe

__________ (central phenomenon)?“

Sub-Question Script:
“(What) ______________ (aspect) does ______
(participant) engage in as a
_____________(central phenomenon)?”
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 Factors influencing international students’
Example
study destination decision abroad
Research Questions

The study is guided by the following research

Example

questions:

1. To EXPLORE What are the factors that influence

international students’ decision in selecting higher
education abroad?

2. To DISCOVER How can the University use this

knowledge to re- design their marketing and
recruitment strategies towards international
students?

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 The Barriers and Facilitators to the Adoption
of New Technologies in Public Healthcare
Sector: A Qualitative Investigation
Research questions

RQ1. What are the main

Example

complexities and challenges facing

the usage and adoption of HIS by
healthcare staff within public
hospitals

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 Service quality and customer satisfaction: A
qualitative research of luxury hotels in Kuala
Lumpur
Research questions

RQ1. To explore What are the determinants of

customer satisfaction in luxury?
Example

RQ2. To explore What are the different service

quality requirements from the customers’
points of views?

RQ3. To discover How managers can influence

satisfaction of customers during their stays in
luxury hotels?
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 Literature Review
If a concept or phenomenon needs to be
understood because little research has been done
on it, then it merits a qualitative approach.

Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful

when the researcher does not know the important
variables to examine (Cresswell, 2009)

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 Qualitative Approach:
Literature Review
• What do we already know about the topic?
• What do you have to say critically about what
is already known?
• Has anyone else done anything similar or
related to what you propose?
• Why is your research worth doing, in the light
of what has already been done?
– To show how current findings fit into what is
already known
Dr Jugindar Singh
6-22
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 Literature Review in a Qualitative
Study
• Documents the importance of the research
problem at the beginning of the study
• Does not foreshadow the research
questions (which are broad in scope to
encourage participants to provide their own
views)
• Is used to compare and contrast with other
studies at the end of the study

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 The Research Methodology

Positivism

Deductive

experiment survey

Data Collection case

• Secondary data study
• Observation
• Interviews phenomenology
• Questionnaires
Data Analysis grounded
theory

action research ethnography

Source: Saunders et al, 2012

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 Methods for this qualitative
study. What to include:
• Philosophy
• Research Choice
• Research Strategy
• Sampling
• Data collection
• Data analysis
• Data validity and reliability
• Ethical Considerations

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 Research Philosophy
• Where is the researcher coming from?
• What assumptions does s/he make? (The answer is
never “none.”) Cresswell, 2007
Constructivism/Interpretivism:
– Reality is subjective
Qualitative Research

– Seek to understand meaning as

experienced by participants
– Meaning of events is mediated by
interactions with others, and social and
cultural context
– Start with open-ended inquiry and result
in hypothesis Cresswell
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 Research Approach: Inductive Approach
1. Qualitative research takes inductive inquiry; thus
information- richness is important.

2. Inductive research involves the search for pattern from

observation and the development of explanations –
theories – for those patterns through series of hypotheses
(Bernard, 2011).

3. Without adequate theoretical basis, qualitative study will

lead to baseless assertion that offers little explanation to
the topic under investigation (Mabert & McKevitt, 2002).

Qualitative research – Inductive Approach

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 Research Strategies
Specific approaches to inquiry
1. Narrative within design categories
research • Quantitative: Experimental
and quasi-experimental,
2. Phenomenology surveys

3. Ethnography
• Qualitative: Narrative, case
4. Grounded study, ethnography, grounded
Theory theory, Phenomenology

5. Case Study • Mixed: Parts of both, in

parallel, series, or combination
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 The Qualitative Traditions
Dimension Narrative Phenomenology Grounded Ethnography Case Study
Theory
Focus •Exploring the • Understanding • Developing a • Describing • Developing an
life of an the essence of theory rounded and in-depth
individual experiences from data in interpreting a analysis of a
about a the field cultural or single case or
phenomenon social group multiple cases
Data • Primary • Long interviews • Interviews • Primarily • Multiple
Collection interviews and with up to 10 with observations sources
documents people 20-30 and interviews including
individuals to with additional documents,
“saturate” artifacts during archival rec.
categories and extended time interviews,
detail a theory in the field observations,
Data • Stories • Statements • Open coding • Description • Description
Analysis • Epiphanies • Meanings • Axial Coding • Analysis • Themes
• Historical • Meaning themes • Selective Cod. • Interpretation • Assertions
content • Description of • Conditional
the experience Matrix
Narrative • Detailed • Description of • Theory or • Description of • In-depth study
Form picture of an the “essence” of theoretical the cultural of a “case” or
individual’s life the experience model behavior of a “cases”
group or an
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individual
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 Reporting Structures
Grounded
Narrative Phenomenology Theory Ethnography Case Study
Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction Entry vignette
(problem, questions) (problem, (problem, (problem, Introduction
Research questions) questions) questions) (problem,
procedures (a Research Research Research questions, case
narrative, procedures (a procedures procedures study, data
significance of phenomenology (grounded theory, (ethnography, collection,
individual, data and philosophical data collection, data collection, analysis,
collection, analysis assumption, data analysis, analysis, outcomes)
outcomes) collection, outcomes) outcomes) Description of
Report of stories analysis, Open coding Description of the case(s) and
Individuals theorize outcomes) Axial coding culture its (their)
about their lives Significant Selective coding Analysis of context
Narrative segments statements and theoretical cultural themes Development
identified Meanings of propositions and Interpretation, of issues
Patterns of statements models lessons Detail about
meaning identified Themes of Discussion of learned, selected issues
(events, processes, meanings theory and questions Assertions
epiphanies, themes) Exhaustive contrasts with raised Closing
Summary description of extant literature (Adapted from vignette
(Adapted from phenomenon) (Adapted from Wolcott, 1994b) (Adapted from
Denzin, 1989a, (Adapted from Strauss & Corbin, Stake, 1995)
1989b)
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Title of Slides
 Narrative research
• In narrative research, researchers
describe the lives of individuals, collect
and tell stories about people’s lives, and
write narratives of individual experiences.
• Focuses on studying a single person, • Single
gathering data through the collection of individual
stories, reporting individual experiences, • Interested in
and discussing the meaning of those
experiences for the individual. Creswell, 2008 exploring the
• Spoken or written text giving an experiences
account of an event/action or series of of that
events/actions, chronologically individual
connected (Czarniawska, 2004, p. 17)
Examples of Narrative Research:
1. A study of the experiences of an autistic student who has moved from
a self-contained program to an inclusion setting
2. A study of the experiences of a high school track star who has been
moved on to a championship-winning
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university track team
Educational Research 2e: Creswell
 Approaches to Narrative
Studies
Approach to narratives
• Analysis of narratives - create descriptions of themes that hold
across stories
• Narrative analysis - create descriptions of events or happenings
and configure them into a story using a plot line
• Worldview studies - create descriptions such as how individuals
are enabled and constrained by social resources –

Forms of narrative research - biography, autobiography, life

histories, personal experience story, contextually focused stories
about individuals or organizations, narratives guided by theoretical
lenses

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 Analysis Within the Approaches to Inquiry:
Narrative (Clandinin & Connelly 2000)
• Analysis centers on the story to be told
– Chronology
– Epiphanies (turning points)
• Options for analysis
– Focus on the five elements of plot structure
(characters, setting, problem, actions, and
resolution)
– Three dimensional space approach focusing
on interaction (personal
‘‘ and social),
continuity (past, present, future), and situation
(physical places or the storytellers’ places)
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Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
 Phenomenology:
• Describes the meaning of lived experiences for
several individuals

• Describes what the participants have in common as

they experience a phenomenon

• The purpose is to reduce the experiences of the

participants with a phenomenon to a description of a
universal essence

• Researcher collects data from participants, develops

a composite description of the essence of the
experience that consists of “what” they experience
and “how” they experienced it
It has a philosophical foundation
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 Phenomenology
Focus: reveal the meaning of the lived
experience from the perspective of participants

• Inquiry is what people experience in regard to some

phenomenon or other and how they interpret those
experiences.
Example:
1. Impact of leadership style on employee motivation in an
organization: A phenomenological study.
(employees interviewed on their experiences)
2. A Phenomenological Study of the Experiences of employees
with Disabilities
3. A phenomenological study on drug usage by employees
(Inquiry seeks to describe, reflect upon and interpret experiences)
Researcher collects data from participants, develops a composite
description of the essence of the experience that consists of
“what” they experience and “how” they experienced it
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 Phenomenology Research Procedures:
Moustakas (1994)
• Determine if the research problem is suited for a
phenomenological approach
• Identify a phenomenon of interest
• Recognize and specify the broad philosophical
assumptions of phenomenology
• Collect the data from those who have experienced
the phenomenon
– Multiple interviews (5-25 persons)
– Observations
– Artifacts (e.g., art, poetry, music)

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Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
 Phenomenology Research Procedures:
Moustakas (1994)
• Ask participants two broad general
questions:
– What have you experienced in terms of the
phenomenon?
– What contexts or situations have typically
influenced or affected your experiences about
the phenomenon?
• Identify significant statements (sentences or
quotes) that provide an understanding of how the
participant experienced the phenomenon
• Cluster significant statements into themes
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Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
 Grounded Theory
A grounded theory design is a systematic,
qualitative procedure used to generate a theory
that explains, at a broad conceptual level, a
process, an action, or an interaction about a
substantive topic (Creswell, 2008).
• The approach is systematic and is used to develop a
theory that explains a process, action, or interaction.

• The participants are chosen by theoretical sampling to

help the researchers form the best theories

• The data is collected mainly through 20- 30 interviews

during multiple visits to the field to saturate categories
(happenings, events, documents)
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Grounded theory
 Intends to generate or
discover a theory that
relates to a particular
situation.
 If little is known about a
topic, grounded theory is
especially useful.
 Because the theory
emerges from the data, it is
said to be grounded in the
data.
 Data collection and analysis
occur simultaneously, until
“saturation” is reached.
Example: Toward a Theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Examined the pedagogical practices of eight elementary school
small
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Code and in North Carolina
Module Title
Move beyond description
and to generate or
discover a theory. Strauss &
Corbin 1998)
A specific methodology
developed by Glaser and
Strauss (1967) for the
purpose of building theory
from data. (Corbin & Strauss, 2008)
Grounded Theory is simply the
discovery of emerging patterns
in data.
Grounded Theory is the
generation of theories from data.
(Glaser in Walsh, Holton et al 2015)
39 teachers in a
Title of Slides
Grounded Theory Research Procedures:
Strauss & Corbin (1990, 1998)
• Focus research questions on understanding how
individuals experience the process and identify the
steps in the process
• Conduct interviews with 20-30 participants
• Questions focus on the steps in the process
• Additional questions focus on what was central to the
process, the causes of the phenomenon, the
strategies employed during the process, and the
effects or consequences that occurred
• Data collection occurs until there is saturation

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Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Grounded Theory Research Procedures:
Strauss & Corbin (1990,1998)
1. Data collection proceeds in stages
– Open coding – researcher forms categories of information
about the phenomenon by segmenting the information into
dimensionalized categories
– Axial coding – categories are assembled into a visual
model in which the researcher identifies a central
phenomenon (category that describes what the process
is), causes, strategies, contexts, intervening conditions,
and consequences (outcomes)
– Selective coding – a story line that connects the
categories
2. The researcher may develop a visual model that portrays the
social, historical and economic conditions that influence the
central phenomenon
3. The theory that results is a substantive-level theory that
4.41
addresses a specific problem or people
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 Ethnography
 A description and interpretation of a cultural
or social group or system.
 The researcher examines the group’s
observable patterns of behavior, customs,
and ways of life.
 Involves prolonged observation of the group,
typically through participant observation.

Focus: study human behaviour in the cultural

context in which it is embedded

Example:
Study with the purpose of understanding a very isolated tribe in the
Amazon basin
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 CASE STUDIES
• Detailed data collection. Study one (or a few)
persons, group, community, institutions, or
events.
• Are designed to gather as much detail about
a subject as possible. – Rich and indepth
information
• 3 methods used: Survey, field study,
historical info- interview, observation,
documentation and historical data.

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 What is Case Study
• “A case study is an empirical study that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon in
depth and with its real-life context” (Yin, 2009,
p18)
• Case is a bounded system, i.e. learning
situation/group = case (Stake)

• Cases are units of investigation

..individuals..communities..groups (Henn et al)
• A case can be a group of students, a group of employees, 1 employee, 1
student)
• Social media (and collaboration, social constructivism) is the
phenomena you are investigating,
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the case=group of employees
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 Case study
A case study is the study of an issue through one or more
cases in a setting or context (a bounded system)

• An exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple

cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection
involving multiple sources of information rich in context

 Exploratory Case study – to explore certain subjects

 Explanatory case st Based on theory
 Descriptive – data explain descriptively a phenomenon

In-depth investigation of a single or small number of units at

a point (over a period) in time. E.g. Evaluation45
of customer
service
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 Types of Case Studies
Intrinsic case study
• Researcher wants to understand a particular case in-depth
Eg: A case of discipline in an institution
Instrumental case study –
• Carried out to understand a theory or a theory related
problem
• Collect rich data related to a theory
Eg: Case study on implementation of transformational
leadership style of a manager to increase performance
Collective or multiple instrumental case study
• A combination of a number of instrumental case studies – in
depth
• Understand theory from a larger context
Eg: A collective case study to understand the reasons for the
defeat of a political party. Research carried on a number of
single cases (instrumental case studies) 4.46
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 Case Study Research Procedures
• Identify the case or cases to be studied
– What kind of case study is most appropriate
– What case or cases will be studied
– Select cases that show different perspectives through
maximal variation sampling
• Engage in multiple forms of data collection including interviews,
observations, documents, audiovisual materials, observations
to develop an in-depth understanding of the case(s)

• Develop a detailed description of the case(s) and common

themes in the cases
– When using multiple cases describe each case and themes first (within-
case analysis)
– Compare cases to look for common themes (cross-case analysis)
– Look for common assertions and meanings within the case

• Report the lessons learned from the case regarding the issue of
the case (instrumental) or learning about an unusual situation
(intrinsic case) 4.47
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 Action Research
• Disciplined inquiry into practices undertaken by those
involved in them
• Done to inform and change the practice studied. To
address problems
• Often undertaken as a collaborative activity among
colleagues
• Often undertaken in situ
• Could focus on a single issue in a classroom, a
program, etc.
Denscombe (2010, p. 6) - An action research strategy's purpose is to
solve a particular problem and to produce guidelines for best practice.

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 Research Choice
Qualitative
Allows researchers to have a deeper understanding of
the research area by taking into account the
perspective of the study population and the context in
which they live (Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2011).

In addition, a qualitative research method is the most

suitable to answer the questions of ‘why’ and ‘how’
(Hennink et al., 2011).

Qualitative: Open-ended, pre-determined or evolving

questions, non-numeric data 49
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 Sampling: Sample size
Based on the phenomena to be studied
• There are no specific rules when determining an
appropriate sample size in qualitative research. Qualitative
sample size may best be determined by the time allotted,
resources available, and study objectives (Patton, 1990).
• Two general guidelines: the number of participants is
sufficient when…
– the extent to which the selected participants represent the
range of potential participants in the setting
– the point at which the data gathered begin to be redundant
(data saturation)
Saturation
A situation in data analysis where participants’ descriptions
become repetitive and confirm previously collected data
• An indication that data analysis is complete
• When data analysis is complete, data collection is terminated
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 Sample size
• Sample sizes should be large enough to obtain
feedback for most or all perceptions. Obtaining
most or all of the perceptions will lead to the
attainment of saturation. Saturation occurs when
adding more participants to the study does not
result in additional perspectives or information.
Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967)

• For grounded theory, Morse (1994) has suggested

30 - 50 interviews, while Creswell (1998) suggests
only 20 - 30.

• For phenomenological studies, Creswell (1998)

recommends 5 to 25 and Morse (1994) suggests at
least six.
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 Sampling methods
Non probability sampling
Most common sampling methods are:
– Purposive sampling
Select participants according to pre-selected criteria
relevant to a particular research question.
– Quota sampling
If the researcher needs a specific number of
participants, quota sampling is better

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Qualitative Data Collection Methods
• In-depth interviews
– Narratives, detailed
responses to probing John Creswell (1998)
questions notes there are four
• Direct observation basic types of data
– Field notes containing that may be collected,
descriptions of activities, depending on the
behaviors, actions, methodology used:
interactions, and processes • Observations
• Document analysis • Interviews
– Written documents: records, • Documents
memoranda, • Audio-visual
correspondence, reports, materials
diaries
What types of information can be collected in qualitative research?
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 Observation
• Intensive, usually long term, examination of a
social group, an organization, etc.
• Researcher becomes a participant in the lives
of group members
– Observes their behavior and learns meaning
systems (which are tied to language)
• Most closely associated with Ethnography, as
developed in Classical Anthropology
• Now done in a variety of disciplines
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 Interview: how do we interview?
1. Decide on the type of interview to use
– Individual
– Focus group
– Telephone
2. Create an interview protocol
3. Ask open-ended questions (5-7)
– allows the participant to create options for
responding
– participants can voice their experiences and
perspectives
4. If possible, tape record and transcribe for
analysis
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 Interviews
• Unstructured – e.g. ethnographic interviewing
– researcher allows interview to proceed at
respondent’s pace and subjects to vary by
interviewee (to an extent)

• Semi-structured – researcher uses an

interview guide

• Structured – researcher uses identical stimuli

and adheres to interview schedule
Sample: For phenomenological studies, Creswell (1998)
recommends 5 to 25 and Morse (1994) suggests at least six
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 Focus Group
• Interview format, but in a group setting
– 6-12 participants with common experience

• Transcript of discussion is the data

– Plus accompanying notes
– Use content analysis or grounded theory
approach to analyze the data

Focus groups: : 6-9 participants (Krueger, 2000); 6- 10 participants (Langford,

Schoenfeld, & Izzo, 2002; Morgan, 1997); 6-12 participants (Johnson &
Christensen, 2004); 6-12 participants (Bernard, 1995) 57
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Questionnaires

Sample
Questionnaire
Open ended
questions

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 Data Analysis
Coding is the analytic process through which the qualitative data
that you have gathered are reduced

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 Data Analysis –
Miles and Huberman (1994).
1. Data reduction
• process of selecting, coding, and categorizing the
data.
2. Data display
• ways of presenting the data. A selection of quotes, a
matrix, a graph, or a chart illustrating patterns in the
data may help the researcher to understand the data.
3. Draw conclusions
• based on patterns in the reduced set of data

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 Data Reduction -reduction
of data through coding and categorization.
• Coding is the analytic process through which the qualitative
data that you have gathered are reduced
• The purpose of coding is to help you to draw meaningful
conclusions about the data
• Codes are labels given to units of text which are later grouped
and turned into categories
• Examples of coding units include words, sentences,
paragraphs, and themes.
• The smallest unit that is generally used is the word.
• A larger,unit of content analysis is the theme: “a single
assertion about a subject”
• Categorization is the process of organizing, arranging, and
classifying coding units
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 Data Display & Drawing Conclusions
• Data display involves taking your reduced data and displaying
them in an organized, condensed manner.
• Along these lines, charts, matrices, diagrams, graphs,
frequently mentioned phrases, and/or drawings may help you to
organize the data and to discover patterns and relationships in
the data so that the drawing of conclusions is facilitated.
• Conclusion drawing is the “final” analytical activity in the
process of qualitative data analysis. It is the essence of data
analysis; it is at this point where you answer your research
questions by determining what identified themes stand for, by
thinking about explanations for observed patterns and
relationships, or by making contrasts and comparisons.

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 Data Analysis: how will we
analyze it? The overall process
Codes the Text for Codes the Text for
Description to be Used Themes to be Used
in the Research Report in the Research Report

The Researcher Codes the Data (i.e., locates text

segments and assigns a code to label them)
Interactive Simultaneous
The Researcher Reads Through Data
( i.e., obtains general sense of material)

The Researcher Prepares Data for analysis

( e.g., transcribes fieldnotes)

The Researcher Collects Data (i.e., a text file, such as

fieldnotes, transcriptions, optically scanned material)

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 Steps in Coding
1. Read through all What is a code
transcripts
A code is a
2. Start with one transcript word, phrase, or
3. Identify text segments – sentence that
ask “what is this person represents
aspect(s) of a
saying?”
data or captures
4. Bracket text segment the essence or
5. Assign code word feature(s) of a
data
6. Reduce redundancy
7. Collapse codes into
themes
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 A Visual Model of the Coding
Process in Qualitative Research
Divide text Label Reduce Collapse
Initially read
into segments segments of Overlap and codes into
through data
of information information redundancy themes
with codes of codes

Many Many Codes

Pages Segments 30-40 reduced
codes Reduce Codes to
of Text of Text to 20 5-7 Themes

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 Coding Exercise 1
‘X’ is an overall outstanding lecturer. One, if not the ONLY lecturer
on my course that I feel has my best interests at heart and takes
an interest in her students. ‘X’ is always networking and engaging
with PR practitioners and agencies to ensure we get the best chances
of securing Work Experience or future job vacancies. ‘X’ always
encourages us to raise our chances for employability and helps us
with this through her own personal contacts as well as arranging
regular CIPR networking events - dedicating her time outside of
class. ‘X’ is fair and organised - which the whole class appreciates -
and she is able to communicate her messages well. She explains
why we are being taught a certain topic and how this will add to
either our employability or personal development. She is always
looking for new ways to enhance these two areas, and often drafts in
live clients and professionals - which enables us to experience real
life simulations, as well as development of our abilities. I could have
nominated ‘X’ for 'Open door', 'outstanding feedback' or 'strongest
supervision' because she really is a fantastic influence. I think ‘X’ is a
credit to Solent and I know I would have dropped out in my second
year, if it wasn’t for her support.
 Sample

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Principles of Qualitative Research: Designing
Specific steps in the
Vicki L. Plano Clark, M.S. analysis process
John W. Creswell, Ph.D.

1. Exploring the database

a Qualitative Study

2. Coding the data

3. Developing findings - a
description and themes
4. (Re) presenting the description
and themes
5. Interpreting the findings
6. Validating the findings

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Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Dr Jugindar Singh
 CODING
Coding is the process perusing data for categories and meanings
(themes, ideas, etc.) and then systematically marking similar strings of
text with a code label.
CODE CATEGORY

A code in qualitative ‘(Q)ualitative codes are

inquiry is most often a
word or short phrase that
symbolically assigns a
summative, salient,
essence capturing, and/or
evocative attribute for a
portion of language-
based or visual data’
(Saldaña, 2013)
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essence-capturing and
essential elements of the
research story, that, when
clustered together according to
similarity and regularity (a
pattern), they actively facilitate
the development of categories
and thus analysis of their
connections.’
(Saldaña, 2013: 8)Ñ
Title of Slides Dr Jugindar Singh
Three Types of Coding
1. Open coding:
Break data into small parts compare for similarities and
differences explain the meanings of the data by focusing on
“ who, when, where, what, how much, why” (ask questions to
get a clear story)

2. Axial coding:
After open coding, make connection (sort) between categories
and confirm or disconfirm your hypotheses.

3. Selective coding:
Select the core category (match hypotheses) and explain the
minor category (against hypotheses) with additional support
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 Lincoln and Guba's Evaluative Criteria
Lincoln and Guba posit that trustworthiness of a research
study is important to evaluating its
worth. Trustworthiness involves establishing:

• Credibility - confidence in the 'truth' of the findings

• Transferability - showing that the findings have
applicablity in other contexts
• Dependability - showing that the findings are
consistent and could be repeated
• Confirmability - a degree of neutraility or the extent
to which the findings of a study are shaped by the
respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or
interest.
Lincoln, YS. & Guba, EG. (1985).
Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA:
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Title of Slides Dr Jugindar Singh
 Triangulation
The main purpose of triangulation in educational and social
science research is to increase the credibility and validity of
the results

According to O’Donoghue and Punch (2003),

triangulation is a “method of cross-checking data
from multiple sources to search for regularities in
the research data

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 :
Triangulation
Often used to indicate that more • Method to enhance
than two methods are used in a the validity &
study with a view to double (or reliability of
triple) checking results. qualitative research
According to O’Donoghue and Punch
(2003), triangulation is a “method of • Enhances accuracy
cross-checking data from multiple of interpretation
sources to search for
regularities in the research data
• Confirms that the
data collected is not
due to chance or
Purpose: To increase the
circumstances
credibility and validity of the
results
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 Triangulation - Types
1. Data triangulation
2. Investigator triangulation
3. Theory triangulation
4. Methodological triangulation
5. Environmental triangulation

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 Types of Triangulation
1) Data Triangulation (different sources of information)
• Time – e.g. longitudinal
• Space – more than 1 site
• Person – more than 1 person
Eg: In-depth interviews could be conducted with 2 groups to
gain insight into their perspectives on the research phenomena
outcomes
2) Method Triangulation (multiple qualitative and/or
quantitative methods)
• Design – e.g. Mixed method
• Data collection – More than 1 collection method
Eg:Results from surveys, focus groups, and interviews could
be compared to see if similar results are being found

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 Types of Triangulation
3) Investigator Triangulation (several different investigators )
Multiple investigators to explain
Eg: Two investigators observing employees
The findings from each evaluator would then be compared to
develop a broader and deeper understanding of how the
different investigators view the issue

4) Theory Triangulation
More than 1 theory

5. Environmental Triangulation
The use of different locations, settings, and other key factors
related to the environment in which the study took place, such
as the time, day, or season

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 Triangulation
THE EFFECTS OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT ON DISCIPLINE AMONG
STUDENTS

For example:
 Collect data from  May interview teachers,
multiple sources principals & parents
 Collect data in  May interview &
multiple ways from observe students
subjects
 Collect different  May review student
kinds of data in records, interview
multiple ways from teachers, observe
multiple subjects students
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 Tutorial

Discussion
Based on a Past sample qualitative research
identify:
• Purpose
• Research Question
• Research Design
• Data Collection method

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 Assignment
Samples of Qualitative Research

1. Search for Qualitative Research Articles

2. How do they differ from the Quantitative Research

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Example
Service quality and customer satisfaction: A
qualitative research of luxury hotels in Kuala Lumpur
Purpose
To determine whether luxury hotel managers and customers have the same
understanding of service quality and satisfaction and whether there is a disparity
between services offered by luxury hotels and the way customers actually
experience them.

Design/methodology/approach
This research used interviews with managers and guests of 5-Star hotels in
Malaysia and qualitative analysis to understand definitions and perceptions of
luxury, service quality and satisfaction.
Research questions
RQ1. What are the determinants of luxury and how do managers and customers
define it?

RQ2. What are the different service quality requirements from the managers’ and
customers’ points of views?

RQ3. What factors influence satisfaction of customers during their stays in luxury
hotels?
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 Management accounting and risk management in
Malaysian financial institutions: An exploratory
study
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the link between
management accounting and risk management. The paper measures the
extent to which management accounting practices help in managing risks and
the extent of the integration between these two important managerial functions.
Design/methodology/approach – The study used a mail survey of financial
institutions listed in the Malaysian Central Banks’ web site. The respondents to
whom 106 questionnaires were sent were the chief financial officers; the
response rate was 68 percent. A total of 16 post-survey semi-structured
interviews were also conducted with selected respondents to gain further
insights into the survey findings.
Findings – The findings from the survey indicate that analysis of financial
statements was perceived to contribute most towards risk management. The
majority of the respondents were of the view that the management accounting
function was greatly involved in the organization’s risk management.
Consistent with the survey findings, the interviewees also perceived that
budgetary control, budgeting, and strategic planning played important roles in
managing risk.
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 Do corporate governance codes improve
board accountability?
Interview

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 Women in Leadership Positions, Road to Success, A
CASE STUDY IN BAHRAIN
Abstract
Bahrain is a Muslim Arab tribal society, where women play a significant role in the
countries’ development, and the number of female business leaders is increasing
rapidly. Understanding the circumstances that brought these women to the forefront of
business in their country will lead to constructing a better business environment for
women in the future. The aim of this study is to explore these women in terms of: the
secret behind their successes, their beliefs, and motivation towards leadership. The
study tries to identify the “gap” in the scholarly literature on Bahraini women in business,
and to provide in-depth data on female leaders in the region.
The study employs the inductive approach, using an in-depth qualitative open-ended
interview, developed and based on the contingency leadership theory. And the Weber
framework of authority. The results indicate that the main factors contributing to the
success of women leaders are social status, cultural, gender, struggle, and difficulties
from women leaders’ point of view.
This is a pilot study for further in-depth quantitative research in Bahrain and the GCC
countries. This study is made up of eight samples. It is anticipated that future
comparative research will be extended to a further quantitative study to cover a wider
sample of Bahrain and GCC countries.
The paper is considered as one of the first to discuss the factors affecting the success of
businesswomen in Bahrain, rather than the factors that empower them.
Keywords:
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Title Leadership, Bahrain,TitleGCC,
of Slides Business Dr Jugindar Singh
 Bank officers’ perceptions and uses
of qualified audit reports of SMEs

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 ERP systems and management
accounting: a multiple case study

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 Tutorial
Factors influencing international
students’ study destination decision
abroad: A qualitative study in Kuala
Lumpur Malaysia

Writing Chapter 3

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3.1 Research Philosophy
In this section, state the research philosophy
Research philosophy is defined as "the development of knowledge and the
nature of knowledge" (Saunders, et al., 2012). Some of philosophies are:
•Positivism - the stance of the natural scientist
•Realism - direct and critical realism
•Interpretivism – researchers as ‘social actors’
Example:
According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornbill (2012, the research philosophy is a belief about the
way in which data about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used and the
philosophy adopted contains important assumptions about the way in which researcher view the
world. Positivists believe that reality is stable and can be observed and described from an
objective viewpoint (Levin, 1988), i.e. without interfering with the phenomena being studied.
Interpretivists contend that only through the subjective interpretation of and intervention in
reality can that reality be fully understood and the study of phenomena in their natural
environment is key to the interpretivist philosophy (Saunders et al., 2012).

This research is based on Interpretivism. Interpretivism advocates that it is necessary for the
researcher to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors. This
emphasizes the difference between conducting research among people rather than objects such as
trucks and computers. (Saunder et al., 2012). The term ‘social actors’ is quite significant here
and the social actors will be the respondents. The actors Interpretivism argues that we should try
to understand social phenomena from the viewpoint of those who are being studied; that is, from
the perspective of the humans being studied (Saunders
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et al., 2012) Dr Jugindar Singh
3.2 Research Approach
1. State the classification of research purpose - exploratory, descriptive and
explanatory
2. State the research approach – inductive or deductive
There are 2 research approaches i.e. deductive and inductive
•Deduction - theory and hypothesis are developed and tested
•Induction – data are collected and a theory developed from the data analysis

Example:
According to Saunders, et al. (2012), research approaches are mainly based on the research
philosophies, whereby the deductive approach is commonly used by researchers with traditional
natural scientific views (positivism), while inductive approach is usually based on
phenomenology (interpretivism). With deduction a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses) are
developed and a research strategy designed to test the hypothesis. With induction, data are
collected and a theory developed as a result of the data analysis.
This research is based on inductive approach and the purpose here would be to get a feel of what
was going on, so as to understand better the nature of the problem (Saunders et al., 2012). Data
will be collected through interview and the result of this analysis would be the formulation of a
theory. You would have gone about the production of that theory using an inductive approach:
theory would follow data (Saunders et al., 2012). Research using an inductive approach is likely
to be particularly concerned with the context in which such events were taking place. Therefore,
the study of a small sample of subjects might be more appropriate than a large number as with the
deductive approach (Saunders et al., 2012).
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3.3 Research Strategy (Survey/case study, grounded theory)
1. Explain your research strategy. The strategies that can be used are:
• experiment; • survey; • case study; • action research;• grounded theory;
• ethnography; • archival research.

Example:
According to Saunders et al. (2012), your choice of research strategy will be guided by your
research question(s) and objectives, the extent of existing knowledge, the amount of time and
other resources you have available, as well as your own philosophical underpinnings. According
to Saunders, there are seven research strategies, namely: experiment, survey, case study, action
research, grounded theory, ethnography and archival studies (Saunders et al., 2007).

This is a phenomenological research and as stated by Cresswell (2009), it is a strategy of inquiry

in which the researcher identifies the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon
as described by participants. Understanding the lived experiences marks phenomenology as a
philosophy as well as a method, and the procedure involves studying a small number of subjects
through extensive and prolonged engagement lo develop patterns and relationships of meaning
(Moustakas, 1994). Guided by the phenomenological research paradigm, this research uses
qualitative research to explore social or human problems. This means that while conducting the
study in a natural setting the researcher will build a holistic picture, and will analyse the words of
the respondents, in order to construct a detailed view of the information (Creswell 1988). Hence,
this qualitative research project is conducted based on an interpretive design using a naturalistic
inquiry (Lincoln and Guba 1985).
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 3.4 Research Choices (Qualitative/quantitative/mixed)
1. What is the research choice and why?
There are 3 methods used.
•Qualitative (numerical data)
•Quantitative (non-numerical data
•Mixed (both numerical and non-numerical data)
Example:
This is a exploratory qualitative research and Bryman and Bell (2007) define
quantitative research as a research strategy that emphasizes quantification in the
collection and analysis of data, which entails the use of a deductive approach in the
testing of the theory. Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful when the
researcher does not know the important variables to examine (Cresswell, 2009). The
qualitative research strategy is constructed around the emphasis of words and meanings
rather than in the quantification of the collection and analysis of data, which indirectly
emphasises an inductive approach to the generation of theories (Saunders et al., 2012)

Due to the nature of the study, a qualitative research approach was chosen. This method
allows researchers to have a deeper understanding of the research area by taking into
account the perspective of the study population and the context in which they live
(Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2011). In addition, a qualitative research method is the most
suitable to answer the questions of ‘why’ and ‘how’ (Hennink et al., 2011).
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3.6 Data (primary/secondary)
1. Explain the type of data that will be collected and analysed
There are 2 types of data collected:
PRIMARY DATA: Data originated by a researcher for the specific
purpose of addressing the research problem.
SECONDARY DATA: Data that is collected from secondary
sources such as reports, newspapers etc.

Example:
According to Saunders et al. (2012), secondary data is data that have already been
collected for some other purpose, perhaps processed and subsequently stored. There are
three main types of secondary data: documentary, survey and those from multiple
sources. Primary data is collected by researchers themselves through observation,
interviews and questionnaires (Saunders et al., 2012). For this research, primary data
will be collected through semi structured interviews. Interviews tend to be used for
descriptive or exploratory research.

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3.7 Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to
design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is
produced.
•The scales used
•The source of questions (adopted or adapted)
•The structure/design of questionnaire (demographic and other data)
•The type of questions (Open ended or closed)
•How the questionnaire will be distributed (Attach a sample of the questionnaire)
Example:

As stated by Cresswell (2009), researchers collect data on an instrument or test (e.g .. a

set of questions about attitudes toward self-esteem) or gather information on a
behavioral checklist (e.g . observation of a worker engaged in a complex skill). In This
qualitative interviews, the researcher conducts face-to-face interviews with participants.

These interviews involve semi-structured and generally open-ended questions that are
few in number and intended to elicit views and opinions from the participants (Cresswell,
2009). The questions (typically an ice-breaker question at the beginning followed by 4-5
questions that are often the sub questions in a qualitative research plan. There will be
probes for the 4-5 questions, to follow up and ask individuals to explain their ideas in
more detail or to elaborate on what they have said.
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3.8 Sources of Data collection (Interview)
Example:
An interview and unobtrusive methods were used to collect the study’s data. The interview is one
of the most important sources of case study information (Yin, 2009). Interviews can be in-depth,
focused, structured, or unstructured. A semi structured interview was used for the study because
it provided for a short period of time in which the interview was open-ended but still followed a
predetermined set of questions. The students were interviewed.
Semi-structured interview guides will be created to conduct the present study. Semi-structured
interviews are typically used to seek information from people about a specific issue or topic on
individual and personal experiences (Hennink et al., 2011). For this study, a semi-structured
interview was an appropriate method because it allowed the author to modify and guide the
conversations towards the appropriate topics and issues. The advantage of the structure guide is
to facilitate the sorting, comparing and analysing of materials instead of going to irrelevant and
unproductive directions while the limitation is in its ability to offer new interesting rich results
(Alveeson 2011). The discussion guide used is semi-structure as it allows a good deal intuition of
the hermeneutic reading as it is fairly open to what the interviewer feels is relevant and important
to talk about based on the interest of the event to ensure a rich account of interviewees’
experience, knowledge, ideas and impression that may be considered and documented (Holstein
& Gubrium 1997, Alvesson 2011).The author will have the ability to maintain the flow of
interviews by adjusting the pace which suited both the interviewer and interviewees. Thus,
interviewees will have greater freedom to express and discuss their ideas and thoughts compared
to other research method like questionnaires. This research method will allow the author to have
direct interaction with interviewees, develop deeper personal relationships and obtain a more in-
depth understanding.
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3.9 Sampling (Type, population, frame, size)
1. State the Study Population, sampling frame and units of analysis. What was
the sample size and how was it calculated
•Describe the characteristics of your study population—who are they and where are
Example:
they situated and how big is this population size?
For this research,your
•Describe purposeful
samplesampling will
size, how bederive
you used, This technique
the sample is widely
size (state used in qualitative
the formula)
research
2. Statefor
thethe identification
sampling methodand(probability
selection of information-rich cases for the most effective use
or non-probability)
of limited resources (Patton, 2002). This will involve identifying and selecting individuals or
groups of individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a
phenomenon of interest (Cresswell & Plano Clark, 2011). In addition to knowledge and
experience, the importance of availability and willingness to participate, and the ability to
communicate experiences and opinions in an articulate, expressive, and reflective manner is
important (Bernard, 2002).

There are no specific rules when determining an appropriate sample size in qualitative research.
Research suggested that sample size is influenced by many considerations, among them time and
cost (Bryman, 2008). Qualitative sample size may best be determined by the time allotted,
resources available, and study objectives (Patton, 1990). For phenomenological studies, Creswell
(1998) recommends 5 to 25 and Morse (1994) suggests at least six. Qualitative methods place
primary emphasis on saturation (i.e., obtaining a comprehensive understanding by continuing to
sample until no new substantive information is acquired) (Miles & Huberman, 1994. Therefore
this study will comprise between 5 to 20 interviews with respondents until the ‘saturation’ point
is reached. Invitations will be sent to qualified respondents. The objective was gathering ‘deep’
information and perceptions through s interviews, and representing it from the perspective of the
research
Module participant.
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3.10 Data Analysis
Example:
Qualitative research studies involves a continuous interplay between data
collection and data analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1994).This research study
followed the Creswell’s (2009) six steps during the data analysis process. The
steps to look at qualitative data analysis as following steps from the specific to
the general and as involving multiple levels of analysis. Step l is to organize
and prepare the data for analysis. This involves transcribing interviews, typing
up field notes, or sorting and arranging the data into different types depending
on the sources of information. Step 2 is read through all the data to obtain a
general sense of the information and to reflect on its overall meaning. Step 3
is begin detailed analysis with a coding process. Coding is the process of
organizing the material into chunks or segments of text before bringing meaning
to information (Rossman & Rallis, 1998). A qualitative code book was
developed and it is a record that contains a list of predetermined codes that
researchers use for coding the data. Manual hand coding was done. Step 4 is
to use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as
well as categories or themes for analysis. Step 5. is to advance how the
description and themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative. The
most popular approach i.e. a narrative passage to convey the findings of the
analysis. Step 6 is a final step in data analysis involves making an
interpretation
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(Cresswell,
of Slides 2009). Dr Jugindar Singh
 3.11 Research Goodness and Trustworthiness
Example
To decrease threats to credibility (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), this research will have
(a) triangulated data; i.e., I used multiple sources of data to confirm emerging
findings (Merriam, 2002; Prasad, 2005; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009); (b) perform
member checks (Merriam, 2002) by sending participants a copy of their
interview transcript and asking them to verify the accuracy of the content; and
(c) request peer review (Merriam, 2002) of the findings as they emerged.

To increase dependability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) of study findings, this

research will provide an audit trail (Merriam, 2002)—that is, a detailed
explanation of the data collection and analysis methods and how decisions
were made throughout the study. To enable other researchers to make
decisions about transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) of results, this research
will use rich, thick description (Merriam, 2002).

For reliability , several reliability procedures such as checking transcripts to

make sure that they do not contain obvious mistakes made during transcription
and making that there is not a drift in the definition of codes, a shift in the
meaning of the codes during the process of coding (Gibbs , 2007).
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3.12 Ethical Considerations
Example:
Ethical considerations relate to all phases of the research process. With consideration
for participants, research sites, and potential readers, studies can be designed that
contain ethical practices (Cresswell, 2009). Research ethics refer to the appropriateness
of your behaviour in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of your work
or are affected by the work. They also relate to yourself and ensuring no harm comes to
you and other researchers (Saunders .et al., 2012). As stated by Saunders et al. (2012),
potential ethical issues should be recognized and considered from the outset of your
research and are one of the criteria against which your research is judged. As
researchers anticipate data collection, they need to respect the participants and the sites
for research. Many ethical issues will arise during this stage of the research.

This research will not put participants at risk, and respect vulnerable populations
(Cresswell, 2009). In this proposal, the researcher develops an informed consent form
for participants to sign before they engage in the research. This form acknowledges that
participants' rights will be protected during data collection. Another issue to comply
about confidentiality is that some participants may not want to have their identity remain
confidential. In the interpretation of data, researchers need to provide an accurate
account of the information. This accuracy may require debriefing between the
researcher and participants in quantitative research (Berg, 2001). In order to protect
personal information of the interviewees, they will remain anonymous throughout the
whole research from data collection to data analysis. Their identifications will be hidden
in the
Module transcriptions.
Code and Module Title Title of Slides Dr Jugindar Singh