LECTURE 2.

Contents 1

2. Measurement of physical quantities

2.1. Acquisition of information: active and passive information
2.2. Units, systems of units, standards
2.2.1. Units
2.2.1. Systems of units
2.2.1. Standards
2.3. Primary standards
2.3.1. Primary frequency standards
2.3.2. Primary voltage standards
2.3.3. Primary resistance standards
2.3.4. Primary current standards
2.3.5. Primary capacitance standards
2.3.6. Primary inductance standards
2.3.7. Primary temperature standards
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.1. Acquisition of information 2

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

2.1. Acquisition of information

Active measurement object

Active information

Measurement object x1
y
Ratio
measuring system
Reference xr

Passive measurement object

Passive information

Measurement object x1
xe xe y
Ratio
Exciter
measuring system
Reference xr
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.1. Acquisition of information 3

Example 1(a): Active measurement object

Measurement object Ratio

measuring system

AC magnetic field

B= f (R, fB, V/Vref )

R Measurement
v model
Instrumentation

Reference

d[B cos(2pf t) A]
v=-
dt
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.1. Acquisition of information 4

Example 1(b): Passive measurement object

Measurement object Ratio

measuring system

DC magnetic field

B= f (R, fexc, V/Vref )

f
R Measurement
V model
Instrumentation

Exciter Reference

d[B cos(2pf t) A]
v=-
dt
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.1. Acquisition of information 5

Example 2: (a) Passive measurement object

Measurement object V or I references

Exciter
I
Ratio
Ratio R
R VR measuring system
measuring system

(b) Active measurement object

Measurement object V reference

Ratio R
T0ºK R vn
measuring system
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.1. Units 6

2.2. Units, systems of units, standards

2.2.1. Units
The known magnitude (‫ )גודל‬of the physical quantity
(‫ )ערך פיזיקאלי‬to which we refer the measurement is called
the measure (‫)מידה‬.

For absolute measurements, the measure is internationally

standardized and for simplicity is set equal to unity.

Therefore, in the case of absolute measurements,

unit is the standard measure.

Reference: [1]
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Systems of units 7

2.2.2. Systems of units

If

k is the number of independent physical equations that

describe a particular area of physics and

n is the number of different quantities in the k equations

(n > k), then

n - k quantities can be used freely as base quantities in a

system of units suitable for that area of physics.

The other k quantities are derived quantities that follow from

the base quantities and the k equations.

Reference: [1]
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Systems of units 8

SI obtains its international authority from the Meter

Convention, signed in Paris by the delegates of 17 countries,
including the United States, on 20 May 1875, and amended in
1921. Today 48 states are members. The treaty established
the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) as
the formal diplomatic body responsible for ratification of the
new proposals related to metric units. The scientific decisions
are made by the International Committee for Weights and
Measures (CIPM).

The activities of the national standards laboratories are

coordinated by the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM, Sèvres, France).

The SI was established by the 11th CGPM in 1960, when the

metric unit definitions, symbols and terminology were
extensively revised and simplified.

Tarantola A. Probability and measurements (lecture notes, Paris, 2001).

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Systems of units 9

SYSTÈME INTERNATIONAL D’UNITÈS (SI): base and additional* units

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL DIMENSION DEFINITION (STANDARDS)

Equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the

1. Length meter m L
orange-red line of the krypton-86 spectra.
Cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept in France and a
2. Mass kilogram kg M number of copies. (May be replaced by an atomic
standard within the next ten years.)
Time for 9,192,631,770 cycles of resonance vibration
3. Time second s T
of the cesium-133 atom.
Absolute zero is defined as 0 kelvin.
4. Temperature kelvin K K
0 degrees Celsius equals 273.16 kelvins.

Intensity of a light source (frequency 5.40x1014 Hz) that

5. Luminosity candela C C gives a radiant intensity of 1/683 watts/steradian in a
given direction.
Current that produces a force of 2.10-7 newtons per
6. Electric
ampere A I meter between a pair of infinitely long parallel wires
current
1 meter apart in a vacuum.
7. Amount of Number of elementary entities of a substance
mole mol -
substance equal to the number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon 12.

The angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc that

*Angle radian rad -
is of the same length as the radius.

The solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere by an

*Solid angle steradian sr -
area on its surface equal to the square of its radius.
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Systems of units 10

SYSTÈME INTERNATIONAL D’UNITÈS (SI): some derived units

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL DIMENSION DEFINITION

DEFINITION

Rate of change of velocity of 1 meter per 1 second per one

Acceleration meter/s/s m s-2 ML-2
second.
square Multiplication of two orthogonal (right-angle) lengths in
Area m2 M2
meter meters
cubic Multiplication of three mutually orthogonal (right-angle)
Volume m3 M3
meter lengths in meters.
The force required to accelerate a 1 kilogram mass 1 meter
Force newton N MLT-2
/ second / second.

coulomb Quantity of electricity carried by a current of 1 ampere for 1

Charge C IT
second.

Energy joule Work done by a force of 1 newton moving through a

J ML2T-2
distance of 1 meter in the direction of the force.
Power watt W ML2T-3 Energy expenditure at a rate of 1 joule per 1 second.
Resistance that produces a 1 volt drop with a 1 ampere
Resistance ohm W ML2T-3I-2 current.

Frequency hertz Hz T-1 Number of cycles in 1 second.

Pressure due a a force of 1 newton applied over an area of

Pressure pascal Pa ML-1T-2 1 square meter.

Velocity meter/s m s-1 LT-1 Rate of movement in a direction of 1 meter in 1 second.

Potential volt The potential when 1 joule of work is done in making 1

V ML2T-3I-1
(emf) coulomb of electricity flow.
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Standards 11

2.2.3. Standards
The terms unit and physical quantity are both abstract
concepts. In order to use a unit as a measure, there must be
a realization of the unit available: a physical standard.

A standard can be:

an artifact (prototype, ‫;)מכשיר‬

a natural phenomenon (atomic processes, etc.);

a standardized procedure of measurement using

standardized measurement methods and equipment.

Reference: [1]
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Standards 12

There are primary and secondary standards.

Primary standards are preserved and improved in a

national institute of standards and technology.

Measurements are usually based on secondary or lower order

(working) standards.

These are are calibrated to higher (primary or secondary)

standards.

An even lower order standard (reference) is present in every

instrument that can perform an absolute measurement.

Such instruments should also be calibrated regularly, since

aging, drift, wear, etc., will cause the internal reference to
become less accurate.

Accuracy is defined here as an expression of the closeness of

the value of the reference to the primary standard value.

Reference: [1]
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Standards 13

Illustration: The hierarchy of standards

Primary
standard

Secondary
standard

Absolute Relative
accuracy accuracy

Measuring
instrument

Device
under test
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Standards 14

Illustration: Measurement standards

Standards users

Defacto
National International Industry
international
standards standards standards
standards

International International
Organization for Electrotechnical
Standards (ISO) Commission (IEC)

American National British Standards Israeli Standards Other national

Standard Institute Institute Institute standards
(ANSI) (BSI) (SII) associations

American Institute of
American
Society for Electrical and
Society for Other member
Testing and Electronic
Quality societies
Materials Engineers
(ASQ)
(ASTM) (IEEE)
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Standards 15

Illustration: A primary standard of mass (the kilogram)

Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, www.sp.se

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards. 2.2.2. Standards 16

Example: Preservation of the standard

Swedish national testing and research institute

looks after its weight well!

At the latest major international calibration of national

kilogram prototypes, in 1991, the mass of the Swedish
prototype was determined to 0.999 999 965 kg, with an
uncertainty of measurement of ± 2.3 μg.

It was found that, after more than a century, the mass of

our national kilogram had changed by only 2 μg
compared to that of the international prototype. No other
national standard anywhere in the world has been better
kept.

Swedish National Testing and Research Institute. www.sp.se

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.6. Primary frequency standards 17

2.3. Primary standards

2.3.1. Primary frequency standard

DE

e f 0= DE/h
The atoms of Cesium-133 are selected with electrons
jumping to a lower energy level and emitting photons at f 0=
9.19263177160 GHz. The unit of time, 1 s, is defined as the
duration of exactly f0 cycles. A crystal oscillator in the
feedback loop of the exciter is used to adjust the frequency
of the standard to that frequency at which most transactions
occur. (The quality factor of so tuned standard Q=2107.)

Measurement uncertainty: ±110-12 s (± 10-6 ppm).

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.6. Primary frequency standards 18

Michelson interferometer (1887)

Measurement uncertainty: up to 1 nm.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experiment http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/EDDOCS/Wavelengths_for_Colors.html
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.1. Primary voltage standards 19

2.3.2. Primary voltage standard

AC Josephson effect (1962)

h
V = f0
2q
A Josephson junction at ~4 K

If a direct voltage is applied to the junction terminals, the

current of the electron pairs crossing the junction oscillates at
a frequency which depends solely on the applied voltage V
and fundamental constants.

Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d'Essais. www.lne.fr/en/r_and_d/electrical_metrology/josephson_effect_ej.shtml

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.1. Primary voltage standards 20

h
V = f0
2q

The standard volt is defined as the voltage required to produce

a frequency of f0 = 483,597.9 GHz.

A chip with N=19,000 series junctions enables the

measurement of V = 10 V ± 110 -10 (±10 -4 ppm). 1 ppm=10 -6

Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d'Essais. www.lne.fr/en/r_and_d/electrical_metrology/josephson_effect_ej.shtml

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.2. Primary current standards 21

2.3.3. Primary current standard: watt balance

I
V

dF dF
mg = - I V I = mgv V=-v
dz dz

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. www.bipm.fr/en/scientific/elec/watt_balance/wb_principle.html

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.2. Primary current standards 22

NIST: Measurement uncertainty: I = 1 A ± 110-6 (± 1 ppm).

National Institute of
Standards and
Technology (USA).
National Institute of Standards and Technology. www.aip.org/png/html/planck.htm
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.3. Primary resistance standards 23

2.3.4. Primary resistance standard

Quantum Hall effect (von Klitzing 1980)

Thin semiconductor
at ~1.5 K

h
R=
q2

www.lne.fr/en/r_and_d/electrical_metrology/josephson_effect_ej.shtml http://www.warwick.ac.uk/%7Ephsbm/qhe.htm
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.3. Primary resistance standards 24

Example: Measurement uncertainty

(Swedish National Testing and Research Institute)
Traceability map
10 µW ± 20 ppm
Measurements are performed at 100 µW ± 7 ppm
1 mW ± 4 ppm
6,5 kW and 12,9 kW. These levels 10 m W ± 2 ppm
100 mW ± 0,5 ppm
are converted to primary
1 W ± 0,5 ppm
standards by using different types 10 W ± 0,5 ppm
100 W ± 0,5 ppm
of dividers. 1 kW ± 0,5 ppm
10 kW ± 0,5 ppm
100 kW ± 2 ppm
Between the realizations, the
1 MW ± 4 ppm
resistance unit is maintained with 10 M W ± 5 ppm
100 MW ± 7 ppm
a group of six primary standards 1 GW ± 15 ppm
10 GW ± 50 ppm
at 1 W. The yearly drift of the 100 GW ± 0,01 %
1 TW ± 0,03 %
group is within ±0,01 ppm. 10 TW ± 0,05 %
100 TW ± 0,1 %

Swedish National Testing and Research Institute. www.sp.se

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.4. Primary capacitance standards 25

2.3.5. Primary capacitance standard

Thompson-Lampard theorem and cross-capacitors (1956)

C1 C2

ln 2
C = e0 L  L 1.9 pF/m
p

The achieved uncertainty: 1 nF ± 510 -6 (2 ppm).

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.4. Primary capacitance standards 26

Example: Measurement uncertainty

(Swedish National Testing and Research Institute)

Traceability map The capacitance unit

1 pF ±10 ppm
maintained at SP consists of
10 pF ±5 ppm
a group of six 100 pF
100 pF ±5 ppm
standards. The
1 nF ±5 ppm
measurements are executed
10 nF ±20 ppm
with a capacitance bridge
100 nF ±50 ppm
with which the unit under
1 µF ±100 ppm
test can be directly
10 µF ±500 ppm
compared with a reference
standard.

Swedish National Testing and Research Institute. www.sp.se

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.5. Primary inductance standards 27

2.3.6. Primary inductance standard

It is difficult to realize an accurate standard of inductance.

This is caused by the relatively complex geometry of a coil,
power losses, skin effect, proximity effect, etc.

Currently available standards of inductance have an

inaccuracy of about 10 -5 (10 ppm).

Reference: [1]
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.5. Primary inductance standards 28

An extremely pure inductance, with values ranging from

mH to kH in the audio frequency range, can be obtained
by means of active electronic circuits, e.g.
generalized impedance converters (GIC).

Z1 Z3 Z5
Z=
Z2 Z4 Z1

Z2

Z3

Z4

Z5

Reference: [1]
2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.5. Primary inductance standards 29

Example: Measurement uncertainty

(Swedish National Testing and Research Institute)
Traceability map

The realization of inductance is made

1 µH ±5000 ppm
from frequency, resistance and
10 µH ±700 ppm
capacitance. This realization is made
100 µH ±100 ppm
every second year and comprises
1 mH ±100 ppm
calibration of all primary standards.
10 mH ±100 ppm
The most frequently used calibration 100 mH ±100 ppm
method of inductance standards is 1 H ±100 ppm
substitution measurement. The 10 H ±500 ppm
unknown standard is compared with
a known standard having
the same nominal value as the
unknown.

Swedish National Testing and Research Institute. www.sp.se

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.6. Primary frequency standards 30

2.3.7. Primary temperature standard

The standard reference

temperature is defined by the
triple point of water, at which the
pressure and temperature is
adjusted so that ice, water, and
water vapor exist simultaneously
in a closed vessel. The triple point
of pure water occurs at +0.0098C
and 4.58 mmHg pressure.

The kelvin is defined as 1/273.16

of the triple point temperature.

Measurement uncertainty: ±2.510-4 (± 250 ppm).

Swedish National Testing and Research Institute. www.sp.se Reference: [4]

2. MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. 2.3. Primary standards. 2.3.6. Primary frequency standards 31

Concluding Table: measurement uncertainties

QUANTITY UNIT APPROXIMATE UNCERTAINTY

Frequency hertz 10 -7 ppm

Length meter 310 -5 ppm

Voltage volt 10 -4 ppm

Mass kilogram 510 -3 ppm

Resistance ohm 0.05 ppm

Electric current ampere 0.1 ppm

Capacitance farad 1 ppm

Inductance henry 2 ppm

Temperature kelvin 250 ppm

Luminosity candela 1.5 %

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