M1.

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Introduction

In engineering industry, components are made into various size and shape using metals. These
shapes are made by either

• Non-cutting or chipless process [ eg: casting, forging, blanking, rolling etc.]

• Metal cutting process or chip forming operations. [turning, milling, grinding]
Objectives of machining
1. Quick removal of metal
2. High class surface finish
3. Economy in tool cost
4. Less power consumption
5. Economy in the cost of replacement and sharpening of tool
6. Minimum idle time of machine tools.
Cutting tools
Cutting tool is any tool that is used to remove material from the work piece by means of shear
deformation. There are various types of tools used for metal cutting depending upon method and
machine used. Tools used in machining operations can be classified in to two types

• Single point cutting tool

• Multi point cutting tool

Single point cutting tool:- these tools have only one cutting edge. They are used for turning,
facing, chamfering, boring, shaping, thread cutting etc.

Multi point cutting tools:- these tools have more than one cutting edge. They are used for
knurling, drilling, broaching, grinding and milling.
Tool nomenclature

Naming the various angles and parts is

known as nomenclature. The
nomenclature of a single point cutting
tool is shown in the figure.
Attributes of each tool nomenclature
 Rake angle

The rake angle is provided for the following purpose

1. To allow the chip flow in a convenient direction
2. To reduce the required cutting force
3. To provide keenness to cutting edge
4. To improve surface finish

The amount of rake angle to be provided depends on the following factors

1) Type of material to be cut
2) Type of tool material being used
3) The depth of cut
4) The rigidity of the tool holder and condition of the machine
A. Positive rake angle
In most cases positive rake angle is provided on the tool face. Generally the positive rake angle,
• Makes the tool sharp and pointed. It reduces the strength of the tool
• Reduces cutting force and power requirements
• Helps the formation of continuous chips in ductile material
• Can help in avoiding the formation of built-up edge.

B. Zero rake angles.

• No slop is provided on the tool face is known as zero rake. Tool face is parallel to the shank.
• It increases the strength of the tool and avoid welding chip over work surface.
• Usually tools made of brass materials have zero rake.

C. Negative rake angle

• The slope provided on the tool is in such a way that the slope is upward towards the tool.
• Increases the strength of the tool
• Increase the cutting force and power requirements.
• Can improve surface finish
• Negative rake is generally provided on cemented carbide tools.
• It is used to machine high strength alloys with heavier depth of cut
Tool signature
Attribute of feed and tool nomenclature on
surface roughness obtainable
Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Orthogonal cutting
In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge is straight,
parallel to the original plane surface on the
workpiece and perpendicular to the direction of
cutting. Orthogonal cutting involves only two
forces hence the analysis is simple.

Oblique cutting
In oblique cutting, the cutting edge is inclined at
an acute angle with normal to the cutting
direction. The analysis of oblique cutting is more
complex
Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting
The cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is inclined at an acute
perpendicular to the direction of cutting angle with the normal to the direction of
cutting.
The chip flows over the tool face and the The chip flows on the tool face making an
direction of chip flow velocity is normal angle with the normal to the cutting
to the cutting edge edge
The cutting edge is longer than the width The cutting edge may or may not be
of cut longer than the width of the cut
The tool is perfectly sharp and it contacts Frequently, more than one cutting edge is
the chip on rake face only in action
Only two components of cutting force act Three components of cutting force act on
on the tool. They are mutually the cutting edge.
perpendicular to each other.
Tool life is less Tool life is more
Mechanism of metal removal
Mechanism of chip formation
Types of chips
(i) Continuous chips.
(ii) Continuous chips with built-up edge.
(iii) Discontinuous or Segmental chips.
(i) Continuous Chips:
Continuous chips are produced when machining ductile materials such as mild steel, copper and aluminium.
Due to large plastic deformation possible with more ductile materials, longer continuous chips are produced. It
is associated with good tool angles, correct speeds and feeds, and the use of cutting fluids.

Advantages:
1. They generally produce good surface finish.
2. They are most desirable because the forces are stable and operation becomes vibration less.
3. They provide high cutting speeds.

Limitations:
1. Continuous chips are difficult to handle and dispose off.
2. Continuous chips coil in a helix and curl around the tool and work and even may injure operator if sudden
break loose.
3. Continuous chips remain in contact with the tool face for a longer period, resulting in more frictional heat is
used to break the continuous chip into small sections so that the chips cannot curl around the cutting tool.

.
(ii) Discontinuous or Segmental Chips:
Discontinuous chips are produced when machining brittle materials such as grey cast iron, bronze, brass,
etc. with small rake angles. These materials lack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic chips
deformation. The material fails in a brittle fracture ahead of the tool edge along the shear zone. This
results in small segments of discontinuous chips.

Advantages:
i. Since the chips break-up into small segments, the friction between the tool and the chip reduces,
resulting in better surface finish.
ii. These chips are convenient to collect, handle and dispose of.

Limitations:
i. Because of the discontinuous nature of chip formation, forces continuously vary during cutting
process.
ii. More rigidity or stiffness of the cutting tool, holder, and work holding device is required due to
varying cutting forces.
iii. Consequently, if the stiffness is not enough, the machine tool may begin to vibrate and chatter. This,
in turn, adversely affects the surface finish and accuracy of the component. It may damage the cutting
tool or cause excessive wear.
(iii) Continuous Chips with Built-up Edge:
Continuous chips with Built-Up Edge (BUE) are produced when machining ductile materials under
following conditions:
• High local temperature in cutting zone.
• Extreme pressure in cutting zone.
• High friction at tool-chip interface.
The above machining conditions cause the work material to adhere or stick to the cutting edge of the
tool and form Built-Up Edge (BUE). The built-up edge generates localized heat and friction, resulting in
poor surface finish, power loss. The built-up edge changes its size during the cutting operation. It first
increases, then decreases, and then again increases, etc. This cycle is source of vibration and poor
surface finish.

Advantages:
Although built-up edge is generally undesirable, a thin, stable BUE is usually desirable because it
reduces wear by protecting the rake face of the tool.

Limitations:
i. This is a chip to be avoided.
ii. The phenomenon results in a poor surface finish and damage of the tool.
Chip breaker
Analysis of cutting forces in orthogonal
cutting
Cutting tool materials
The various materials are used to remove the materials from the workpiece. The tools must be harder than
the materails which is to be cut. The selection of cutting tool materials depends on the following factors
• Volume of production
• Tool design
• Type of machining process
• Physical and chemical properties of work materials
• Rigidity and condition of machine.
Properties of cutting tool materials
The cutting tool materials should possess the following properties.

Hot hardness
Wear resistance
Toughness
Low friction
Cost of tool
Cutting tool materials
The following materials are suitably heat treated wherever required in manufacturing cutting tools.

a. Carbon steel tool

b. High speed steel
c. Cemented carbides
d. Ceramics
e. Diamonds
Thermal aspect of machining
Measurement of cutting tool temperature
Tool wear and wear mechanisms