Module 4.

Properties of Materials

Prof. Dr. Ir. Bondan T. Sofyan, M.Si.

Properties of Materials
(Sifat / Karakteristik Material)
1. Mechanical Properties (Sifat Mekanik):
• Elastic properties
• Plastic properties

2. Physical properties (Sifat Fisik):

• Electrical properties
• Magnetic properties
• Thermal properties
• Optical properties

3. Chemical properties (Sifat Kimia)

• Corrosion resistance

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Mechanical Properties

2
 Mechanical Properties

• Mechanical properties • Sifat mekanik

include:
– Strength: tensile,
compressive, shear,
flexural, bending
– Impact
– Fatigue
– Ductility, brittleness
– Hardness
– Wear resistance
termasuk:
– Kekuatan: tarik, tekan,
geser, fleksural, tekuk
– Impak
– Fatik / Kelelahan
– Keuletan, kerapuhan
– Kekerasan
– Ketahanan aus

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties of a Sifat mekanik material
material reflects the relationship mencerminkan hubungan antara
between an applied load or force beban atau gaya yang diberikan
to its response or deformation. terhadap respons atau
deformasinya
Nature of the load:
Bentuk beban:
• Static (a load which changes
relatively slowly with time and • Statik (beban yang berubah
is applied uniformly over a secara lambat terhadap waktu
cross section) : tensile, dan diberikan secara seragam
compressive, shear, torsion, di seluruh penampang): tarik,
bending tekan, geser,
geser torsi, tekuk.
tekuk

• Impact (a sudden load). • Impak (beban mendadak)

• Dynamic (a fluctuating load • Dinamik (beban yang
over a period of time). berfluktuasi pada suatu periode
waktu).

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 Types of Load

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac τ
Fs
τ =
Ao
M
2R Note: τ = M/AcR here.
5

4
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
σ= F
Note: compressive
structure member
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park Ao
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) (σ < 0 here).

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)

• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
σθ > 0
σz > 0 σ h< 0

5
Concept of Stress and Strain
(Static load)
When a static load is applied
to a material,
material the material will
change its shape (deform). If
we follow the degree of
deformation as a function of
load, we will get information
about the "behaviour" of the
material.
lf l
0
Loads (F) are expressed in force
units, i.e. ???
Stress (σ) : the intensity of the
internally distributed forces that
resist a change in the form of a
body.
σ = F / A0 [unit ??]
Deformation is used as a general
term to indicate the change in
form of the body.
Strain (ε): the change per unit
length in a linear dimension of a
body.
ε = Δl / l0 [unit ??]
Konsep Tegangan dan
Regangan (Beban statik)
Bila beban statik diberikan
pada material, maka
material akan berubah
bentuk (berdeformasi).
Jika kita mengikuti besar
F deformasi sebagai fungsi
beban, maka kita akan
memperoleh informasi
Δl/2 mengenai "perilaku" dari
material.
A0
Beban (F) dinyatakan dalam
satuan beban, yaitu ???.
Tegangan (σ) : intensitas
beban yang didistribusikan di
dalam material, yang
menghambat perubahan
bentuk. σ = F / A0 [satuan ??]
Deformasi digunakan sebagai
istilah umum untuk perubahan
bentuk dari sebuah benda /
material.
Regangan (ε): perubahan
panjang dari sebuah benda.
ε = Δl / l0 [satuan??]
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 Tensile Testing
• The common way to obtain • Cara umum untuk
mechanical properties of mengetahui sifat mekanik
materials is by conducting a dari material adalah
tensile test
test. dengan melakukan
pengujian tarik.
Shape of specimen / Bentuk spesimen

Tensile Testing
machines

7
 Tensile Testing

Tensile Testing
Computer plotting

8
Tensile Testing

Tensile Testing

9
 Elastic Deformation:

• Deformation in which stress and

strain are proportional.
• Nonpermanent → when the applied
force is released, the piece is
returned to its original shape.

Deformasi elastik:
• Deformasi dimana tegangan dan
regangan berbanding lurus.
• Tidak permanen → ketika beban
dilepas, spesimen akan kembali ke
bentuk awal.

ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
F elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

δ 2

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 Elastic Deformation:

• Hooke's law applied:

σ = E e unit :???
• Where E is known as Young's
modulus or modulus of elasticity
(elastic modulus).
• E of some metals (MPa x 10-4):
Aluminium:6.9 Steel: 20.7
Brass: 10.1 Tungsten: 59.0
Copper: 11.0 Titanium: 10.7
• Higher E → higher ..???

YOUNG’S MODULI: COMPARISON

Graphite Composites
Metals
Ceramics Polymers /fibers
1200 Alloys
Semicond
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Al oxide
Tungsten Carbon fibers only

200
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)* Eceramics
Tantalum
Platinum
Platinu
Cu alloys
Si crystal
<100> Aramid fibers only > Emetals
100 Zinc, Ti
E(GPa)80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only >> Epolymers
60 Aluminum
40 Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
Based on data in Table
20 GFRE*
B2,
109
10 9 Pa Graphite
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
Callister 6e.
10
8 Composite data based on
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60
Polyester
4 PET
vol%
PS of aligned carbon
Epoxy only
2 PC (CFRE), aramid
PP (AFRE), or glass
1 HDPE
0.8
(GFRE) fibers.
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4 13

0.2 LDPE

11
 Elastic Deformation:
• In atomic scale is
manifested as small
changes in the interatomic
spacing and the stretching
of interatomic bonds.
• Dalam skala atomik
diartikan sebagai
perubahan kecil pada
jarak antar atom dan
teregangnya ikatan antar
atom
atom.

Elastic Deformation:
• Poisson's ratio: ratio
of the lateral and
axial strain
ν = - εx / εz
• Poisson's ratio:
rasio antara
regangan lateral
d regangan aksial
and k i l • Theoretical
Theoretical value for
for isotropic
material: 0.25
• Maximum value: 0.50
• Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30

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Plastic Deformation: Deformasi Plastis:
• When stress is no longer • Ketika tegangan tidak lagi
proportional to strain. berbanding lurus dgn regangan.
• Permanent and non-recoverable• Permanen and tidak dapat balik
→ upon removall off stress,
t the
th → bila beban dilepas, benda tidak
piece does not return to its kembali ke bentuk awalnya.
original shape.
• Dari perspektif atom:
• From atomic perspective: berhubungan dengan pemutusan
corresponds to the breaking of ikatan dengan atom tetangga asal
bonds with original atom dan pembentukan ikatan dengan
neighbours and then reforming tetangga yang baru.
bonds with new neighbours.
• Titik dimana deformasi elastik
• The point where the elastic berubah menjadi plastis disebut
deformation changes into plastic batas elastik or batas
deformation is called elastic limit proportional.
or proportional limit.

PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION

(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress, σ at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

εp engineering strain, ε

plastic strain

15

13
 Tensile Properties
• Yield strength σy : the stress level
where plastic deformation begins, or
where the phenomenon yielding occur.
• This is sometimes called proof stress,
which is chosen as that causing a
permanent strain of 0.002.
• Kekuatan luluh, σy: tegangan dimana
deformasi plastis mulai atau ketika
fenomena luluh terjadi.
• Kadang-kadang disebut sebagai proof
stress, yaitu tegangan yang
menyebabkan regangan sebesar
0.002.

YIELD STRENGTH, σy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when εp = 0.002
tensile stress, σ
σy

engineering strain, ε
εp = 0.002
16

14
• Some steels undergo a
very well-defined elastic-
plastic transition which
occurs abruptly, and
termed as: yield point
phenomenon.
• Beberapa jenis baja
mengalami transisi dari
elastik ke plastis secara
jelas, yang disebut
dengan fenomena titik
luluh.

YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Alloys Ceramics/
Semicond Polymers fibers

2000 Steel (4140)qt σy(ceramics)

>>σy(metals)
d epoxy matrix composites, since

1000 d
>> σy(polymers)
Yield strength, σy (MPa)

700 W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
500
600 Mo (71500)
Cu (pure) cw
(1020)acd
ture usually occurs before yield.

Steel (4140)
re usually occurs before yield.

400
300
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020)hr
¨ Room T values
Ti (pure)a
Ta(pure)
Cu (71500)hr
Callister
Based on 6e . in Table B4,
data
rd to measure,
d to measure,

dry
100
Ha in

tension, fractu
ceramic matrix an in

e a = annealed
since in tension, frac
Har

60 Nylon 6,6 nu ag = aged

Al (6061)a hr = hot rolled
70 PC
40 PVC
50 PET cw = cold worked
humid cd = cold drawn
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
PP
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 17

10

15
 Tensile strength:
maximum stress
(~100 - 1000 MPa) Fracture
• Tensile strength: the stress Strength
at the maximum on the
engineering stress-strain
curves. This corresponds to
the maximum stress that
can be sustained by a
structure.
• At maximum stress, a small “Necking”
constriction or neck begins,
and this is called necking.
• Fracture / rupture strength:
stress at fracture.

TENSILE STRENGTH
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
6e
Callister 6e.
engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
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16
 TENSILE Graphite/
STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Metals/ Composites/
Alloys Ceramics/
Semicond Polymers fibers

5000 C fibers
Aramid fib TS(ceram)
3000 E-glass fib
2000
~TS(met)
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

Steel (4140)qt

1000 W (pure) a Diamond

Steel
Ti (4140)
(5Al-2.5Sn)a
AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber) ~ TS(comp)
Cu (71500)hr cw
AlSioxide
nitride

300
Steel (1020)
Ti (6061)ag
Al (pure) a >> TS(poly)
Ta (pure)
200
Al (6061)
a Room T values
<100> Nylon 6,6 wood(|| fiber)
Si crystal Based on data in Table B4,
100
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Callister 6e.
Glass-soda PC PET
PP HDPE CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = aged
ag hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
Graphite H
20 LDPE cd = cold worked
cw drawn

10 qt = quenched
AFRE, & tempered
GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
wood( fiber)
fibers.
1 19

Ductility: the degree of plastic Keuletan: besar deformasi

deformation that has been plastis yang dapat dicapai
sustained at fracture, expressed hingga saat patah, dinyatakan
as: sebagai:

(l f − l0 )
%elongation = ×100
l0
( A f − A0)
% AR = ×100
A0

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 DUCTILITY, %EL
L f −L o
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
Ao
stress, σ larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.

Engineering tensile strain, ε

A o −A f
• Another ductility measure: %AR = x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
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• The importance of ductility:

– An indication of a
degree to which a
structure will deform
plastically before
fracture.
– Specifies the degree of
allowable deformation
during fabrication.
• Kegunaan nilai keuletan:
• Terms of ductile and – Menunjukkan sejauh mana sebuah
brittle materials. struktur dapat berdeformasi plastis
sebelum patah.
– Menentukan derajat deformasi
yang diizinkan selama fabrikasi.
• Istilah material ulet and getas.

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 TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, σ (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, ε

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Toughness: the ability of

materials to absorb energy up
to fracture.
• For a material to be tough, it
must display both strength
and ductility.
• Unit ???

Ketangguhan: kemampuan
material menyerap energi
hingga patah.
• Material disebut tangguh bila
memiliki baik kekuatan dan
keuletan.

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Fracture surface of tensile specimens
Material Description
mild steel cup-cone, silky
wrought iron ragged, fibrous
cast iron gray, flat,
granular
cold-worked or heat-treated
materials "star fracture"

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 Ductile Fracture

Al

Steel

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True Stress and Strain

Comparison of tensile properties of materials

For each group of materials, determine:

• Which material is the toughest?
• Which material is strongest?
• Which material is the weakest?
• Which material possesses the highest yield strength?
• Which material is the stiffest?
• Which material is the most ductile?

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Comparison of tensile properties of materials

For each group of materials, determine:

• Which material is the toughest?
• Which material is strongest?
• Which material is the weakest?
• Which material possesses the highest yield strength?
• Which material is the stiffest?
• Which material is the most ductile?

Comparison of tensile properties of materials

For each group of materials,

determine:
• Which material is the
toughest?
• Which material is strongest?
• Which material is the
weakest?
• Which material possesses
the highest yield strength?
material the
• Which material is the
stiffest?
• Which material is the most
ductile?

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Hardness Testing
• Hardness: a measure of material's
resistance to localized plastic
deformation (e.g: small indent or
scratch).
• Measurements:
M t
• Mohs scale: for minerals.
• Brinnel: steel balls (10 mm).
• Vickers: diamond pyramid (136o).
• Rockwell: conical diamond (120o)
or steel balls (1/16 – ½ in).
• Knoop: diamond pyramid.
•Kekerasan: ukuran ketahan
material terhadap deformasi plastis
terlokalisir (mis: indentasi kecil atau
gores).

Mesin Rockwell

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 Brinell Hardness Machine

Hardness Testing

• Both tensile strength and

hardness are indicators of
metal's resistance to plastic
metal
deformation, therefore they
are roughly proportional. Rule
of thumb:
• Tensile strength (MPa) = 3.45
x HB

• Baik kekuatan tarik maupun kekerasan adalah indikator

ketahanan material terhadap deformasi plastis,
sehingga keduanya kira-kira berbanding lurus.

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 Impact Testing
• Impact energy: the amount of energy that is absorbed by
a material when receiving an impact load, also termed as
notched toughness.
• Method of testing:
Charpy and Izod.

• Energi Impak : jumlah

energi yang diserap oleh
material ketika menerima
beban impak
impak, disebut
juga ketangguhan takik.
• Metode pengujian:
Charpy dan Izod.

Methode of Impact Testing

• Position of specimen in
Charpy methode

• Position of specimen in
Izod methode

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 Impact Testing
• One of the primary functions of Charpy and Izod tests is to
determine whether or not material experiences a ductile-to-
brittle transition, with decreasing temperature.

• Salah satu fungsi utama pengujian Charpy dan Izod adalah

untuk menentukan apakah material mengalami transisi ulet ke
getas, dengan menurunnya temperatur.

Physical Properties
Electrical properties Sifat listrik
• Response of materials to • Adalah respons material
an applied electrical field. terhadap medan listrik
• Ohm 'ss law: yang diberikan.
V = IR • Hukum Ohm:
• Where: V = applied V = IR
voltage, I = current, R = • dimana: V = voltase, I =
resistance arus, R = tahanan
• Resistivity: • Resistivitas:
ρ = RA / l [Ωm] ρ = RA / l [Ωm]
• Electrical conductivity: • Konduktivitas listrik:
σ = 1/ρ σ = 1/ρ

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 Physical Properties
Electrical properties Konduktivitas listrik untuk
beberapa logam [(Ωm)-1 x
Electrical
metals conductivity
[(Ωm)-1 x 10-7for
]: some 10-7]:
Ag Ag==3.8,
Al 6.8;Fe
Cu= =1.0,
6.0;Stainless
Au = 4.3;
Al ==3.8,
6.8; Cu==1.0,
6 8;Fe 6.0; Au = 4.3;
6 0;Stainless
4 3;
steel = 0.2
steel = 0.2
• Semiconductivity: • Semiconductivitas:

– Intrinsic: – oleh
Intrinsik: disebabkan
struktur elektron
electronicbased on
structure
inherent to theSi,
pure yang dimiliki
material oleh
murni, spt: Si,
material, e.g: Ge.
– Extrinsic: is dictated Ge.
by – oleh
Ekstrinsik: ditentukan
atom paduan,
e.g:impurity atoms,
GaP, GaAs, InSb,
CdS, ZnTe. spt: GaP
CdS, , e.
ZnT GaAs, InSb,

Physical Properties
Thermal Properties
• Is the response of a material
to the application of heat.
• Heat capacity (C):
(C): the
theability
ability
of materials to absorb heat
from external surrounding.
C = dQ / dT [J/kg-K]
• Linier coefficient of thermal
expansion (α): the extent to
which a material expands
upon heating [oC-1].
Sifat Termal
• Adalah respons material
terhadap panas.
• Kapasitas panas (C):
kemampuan material
menyerap panas dari
lingkungan luarnya.
C = dQ / dT [J/kg-K]
• Koefisien ekspansi panas
linier (α): derajat pemuaian
material akibat panas [oC-1].

Δl/l0 = αΔT Δl/l0 = αΔT

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 Physical Properties
Thermal Properties

• Thermal conductivity: the • Konduktivitas panas:

ability of a material to transfer kemampuan material
h t
heat. meneruskan panas.

q = -k dT/dx q = -k dT/dx
q = fluks panas, k =
q = heat flux, k = thermal
konduktivitas panas, dT/dx =
conductivity, dT/dx =
perbedaan temperatur
temperature gradient

Physical Properties
Magnetic Properties Sifat magnetik
• Diamagnetism: a very weak form of • Diamagnetisme: bentuk
magnetism that is nonpermanent magnetisme yg sangat lemah
and persist only while an external yg tidak tetap dan ada hanya
field is being applied. It is induced bila ada medan magnet luar.
by a change in orbital motion of Disebabkan
Di b bk oleh l h perubahan
b h
electrons due to an applied gerakan orbital elektron akibat
magnetic field. adanya medan magnet.

• Paramagnetism: a phenomenon • Paramagnetisme: fenomena

where a material has magnetic dimana material memiliki dipol
dipoles which can be aligned by an magnet yg dapat disearahkan
external field. oleh medan magnet luar .

• Ferromagnetism: where a material • Ferromagnetisme: material

possesses a permanent magnetic memiliki momen magnetik tetap
moment in the absence of magnetic tanpa perlu adanya medan
field, e.g: BCC ferrite, Co, Ni. magnet luar, cth: BCC ferrite,
Co, Ni.

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 Chemical Properties
• Corrosion: destructive and • Korosi: serangan terhadap logam
unintentional attack of a metal, it yang merusak dan tidak
is electrochemical and ordinarily direncanakan, bersifat
begins at the surface. elektrokimia dan biasanya diawali
• Electrochemical reaction: di permukaan.

•Oxidation: M → M n+ + n e-
•Reduction: 2H + + 2 e- → H2
O2 + 4H + + 4 e- → 2H2O
O2 + 2H2O + 4 e- → 4 OH –
• Example:
Fe + ½ O2 + H2O → Fe 2+ + 2 OH – → Fe(OH)2
2Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 + H2O → Fe(OH)3

Chemical Properties
• Corrosion rate: the rate of • Laju korosi: laju penghilangan
material removal as a material akibat reaksi kimia.
consequence of the chemical • Dinyatakan sebagai laju
action.
penetrasi korosi
• Is expressed as corrosion
penetration rate (CPR).
CPR = KW / ρAt

CPR = KW / ρAt • W = kehilangan berat setelah

ekspos selama t, r = berat jenis
• W = weight loss after exposure material, A = luas spesimen yang
time t, r = density of material, A = diekspos, K = konstanta.
exposed
e posed specimen area area, K = a
• Satuan: mpy (mils per year) atau
constant.
mm/yr. 1 mils = 0.001 in.
• Unit: mpy (mils per year) or
mm/yr. 1 mils = 0.001 in.

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 Chemical Properties
• Passivity. Some normally
active materials, under
particular environmental
conditions, lose their
chemical reactivity and
become extremely inert.
This is termed passivity. ,
e.g: Al, Fe, Cr, Ni, Ti.
• Passivity is resulted from
formation of highly adherent
and thin oxide film on the
metal surface.
• Pasivitas. Beberapa material
yang biasanya aktif, dalam
kondisi lingkungan tertentu
dapat kehilangan reaktivitas
kimianya dan menjadi
sangat inert. Hal ini disebut
pasivitas. contohnya: Al, Fe,
Cr, Ni, Ti.
• Pasivitas disebabkan oleh
terbentuknya lapisan tipis
oksida yang menempel
sangat kuat di permukaan
logam.
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