Computer Network: A number of Nodes or Stations

connected through Links (wired or wireless) for the

purpose of sharing of resources.

Internet: A network of networks. Different diversities

of network (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI or Wireless) is
are connected through Routers (Lyr. 3 Switch) .
Within a network, different node can be connected
Hub or Switch (Lyr. 2 Switch)
The OSI Protocol Model
• Physical Lyr. deals with:
 how the binary bits are to be converted into electrical & optical signals, to be
transmitted through the medium
 Cable specification of Transmission medium for wired link
 Mode of data transmission to be used: a) Simplex b) half duplex or c) Full
duplex
 Bit rate & Signaling rate
 Which type of Digital encoding over binary data is to be used: NRZ, NRZL,
Manchester, Differential Manchester,……
 Which type of analog modulation scheme to be used on binary data

• Data Link Lyr. deals with :

 Node to node reliable data delivery
 Frame format (as data are transmitted in the form of frames)
 Synchronization of Transmitter (Tx) & Receiver (Rx) about arrival of a frame
 Physical addressing of communicating nodes
 Flow & Error control (node to node)
 DLL Lyr. Protocols (mechanism): HDLC, PPP (Point to Point Protocol),
Ethernet, Token Ring

• Network Lyr. deals with :

 Delivery (Routing) of data packets from original Source to final destination
through the most efficient path (collection of networks) using logical addressing
• Transport Lyr. deals with:
 Host to Host reliable data delivery using Flow & Error control
 Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram
Protocol)

• Session Lyr. deals with:

 Dialog control between 2 processes using FD or HD
 Adding Checkpoint or Synchronization point to a stream of data. [Suppose a
system is sending a file of 2000 pages. It is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100
page unit are received & acknowledged independently. If a crash happens during transmission of page 523, the only page
that needs to be resent after system recorvery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent ]

• Presentation Lyr. deals with :

 Syntax & Semantics of info. Exchange between 2 nodes
 Converting sender dependent info. format to common format at Tx end
 Converting common format to receiver dependent format at Rx end
 Enccyption, Decryption & Compression of data

• Application Lyr. deals with :

 Process to process communication
Use of a Relay
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1.6
1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Categories of Networks
1.7
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

1.8
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

1.9
 Each node is connected with each olther
mesh topology nodes by dedicated pt-to-pt Full Duplex(FD)
links.
If there exists n nodes in network,
Each node must have n-1 ports & n-1 links.
Total n(n-1)/2 links, Amount of cabling V.high
Large cost
No sharing of medium, More secure (Privacy),
Network BW is not shared amongst nodes.
If one node or link breaks, others can still
communicate.
Reconfiguring the Network is V. difficult
If a new node is to be inserted, in the network,
it requires additional n links. & Now each node
should have n ports.
If a node is to be removed, n-1 links needs to
be broken.
Easy to debug

1.10
Central Device: / Switch (_Lyr. 2) Each node is connected with central
device by dedicated pt-to-pt links.
Star topology Communication between any 2 nodes
takes place through central device.
Central device can be Switch or Hub
Total n FD links.
Each node must have port & 1 link.
Amount of cabling & hence cost much
less than mesh.
If one node or link breaks, others can still
communicate.
If central device malfunctions, entire
Network collapses.
Reconfiguring the Network is simple.
If a new node is to be inserted, it requires
1 more links. & SW/HUB should have 1
more port.
If a node is to be removed, 1 link needs
to be broken.
Easy to debug
 bus topology

Each Stations are connected to a backbone cable through taps

Easy to install. No privacy
Backbone cable needs to be established through the most efficient path amongst the
nodes, so that amount of cabling is less. Cost is less
If the backbone cable breaks, entire communication disrupted. Even the nodes on the
same side of broken edge can’t communicate, because of reflection from broken edge.
As the signal moves through cable, gets attenuated, which puts a restriction on the
length of the cable & number of nodes on the network.
Entire Network capacity of backbone cable is shared by all stations, also putting
restrictions on no. of nodes in network.
If a new node is added or deleted, again cable needs to be established through most
efficient path
Difficult to debug.
 Ring topology

Each node is connected to 2 nearest neighbors using pt-to-pt links

Each node has 2 ports & 2 links
n links for n nodes.
Data flow along the direction of the ring.
If one link breaks entire network is disrupted.
At a time only one Stn. Can transmit , others can listen in sequence
Entire Network capacity is shared by all Stations.
No privacy.
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

1.14
Categories of Networks

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

1.15
Figure 10-6
Multipoint Discipline

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 10-7
Select

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 10-8
Poll

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 10-11

Sliding Window

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 10-12

Sender Sliding Window

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 10-13

Receiver Sliding Window

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 10-14
Sliding Window Example

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998