NOTES ON

APPLIED GEOLOGY
BEDDING
• Bed :
Sedimentation unit
greater than 1cm.
• Lamina:
Sedimentation unit
smaller than 1cm.
• Interbedded:
between two things
 STRATIGRAPHY
• Stratigraphic unit
A naturally occuring body of rock or rock
material which is distinguished from
adjoining rock on the basis of some stated
property or properties.
1. Lithostratigraphic unit.
2. Biostratigraphic unit.
3. Chronostratigraphic unit.
4. Geochronologic unit.
 Lithostratigraphic Unit

(( is a stratum or body of strata,

generally layered which conforms
to the law of superposition and is
distinguished and delimited on the
basis of lithic characteristics and
stratigraphic position.))
Nature of Lithostratigraphic Units

• Type section and

locality.
• Independence from
inferred Geologic
history.
• Independence from
time concepts.
 Boundaries

Are placed at positions of

lithic change.
Boundaries in lateral lithologic change.
Correspondence with generic units.
Lithostratigraphic boundaries
Rank of Lithologic Units
 Formation
It is the fundamental unit in
lithostratigraphic classification.
• Content:
A formation should posses some degree of
internal homogeneity or distinct features.
i. One lithic type.
ii. Repetitions of two or more lithic types.
iii. Extrem lithic heterogenity.
• Lithic characteristics.
• Mappability and thickness.
 Lithostratigraphic Nomenclature

• Compound character:
Geographic +Lithic term+ Rank.
Geographic + Rank.
Geographic + Lithic + Rank.
• Use of Simple lithic terms.
• Misuse of well known name.
 Clay Minerals
A term reserved for those constituents of a
clay which give it its plastic properties. They
are hydrous aluminosilicates.
• Generally occur as minute, platy, rarely fibrous
crystals.
• Some contain loosely bonded cations which can
be easily exchanged.
• Ability to loose or take up water.
• Produced by the degradation of other silicates.
• Both two and three layered types are known.
The sheets of clay minerals
 Clay minerals (continue)

• Layers of Al - O/OH are called “gibbsite”.

• Layers of Mg – O/OH are called “brucite”.
• The stacking arrangement of the sheets
determine the clay mineral type, as does
the replacement of the Si and Al inons.
 I. Kandit Group
• Members have two – layered
structure consisting of a silica
tetrahedral sheet linked to an
alumina octahedral sheet by
common O/OH ions.
• No replacement occur for Si
or Al.
• The structure formula is
(OH)4Al2Si2O5. e.g Kaolinite
 II. Smectite Group
• Members have a three –
layered structure.
• Have ability for Al and Si
exchange.
• Have ability for absorbing
water.
• e.g Montmorillonite
(Mg,Ca)O.Al2O3.5SiO2.nH2O
Three – layered structure.
 Diagensis
• Pre-Burial changes: • Early-Burial changes
1. Burrowing organisms 1. Continuation of 2 & 3.
effect. 2. Oxidation of carbonaceous
2. Adjustment to eH and material.
pH. 3. Continuation of compaction.
3. Adjustment to major 4. Probable initiation of
cations. concretions.
4. Development of 5. Start of primary cementation.
Authigenic menerals. 6. Some conversation of
aragonite to calcite, and
development of dolomite.
 Diagensis (continue)
• Late – Burial Changes:
• Cease of eH and pH
adjustments.
• Completion of compaction.
• Authigenic mica & chlorite.
• Completion of concretions
development and
cementation.
• Replacement of aragonite
by calcite; dolomitization.
 Sedimentary Rock Types

Rocks formed from material derived

from pre-existing rocks by
processes of denudation, together
with material of organic origin.
 Lithological Description
1. Type of formation (Limestone, sandstone,
shale…).
2. Colour.
3. Texture.
4. Cementing material.
5. Hardness.
6. Porosity.
7. Minor components (accessories).
8. Staining and fluorescence (oil shows).
 3. Texture
• Sediments with visible graine size:
1. Size,
2. Sorting,
3. Roundness,
4. Sphericity.
• Sediments with crystalline appearance.
estimate crystallinity:
1. Microcrystalline
2. Cryptocrystalline
3. Succrose
• Sediments without recognizable size at ordinary
microscope:
Descripe the morphology of the cutting.
 Dunham Classification
• Depositional texture
not recognized.
• Crystalline carbonate.
Depositional texture recognized

• Depositional texture
recoginized.
• Original components
bound together
• Boundstone.
Mud supported
Grain supported
 Dunham Classification
Depositional Depositional texture recognisable
texture not
recognisable
Original Original components not bound together during
components deposition.
bound
Lacks mud Contain mud (particles<20m)
together
and is grain
during
supported
deposition Grain Mud supported
supported
> 10% < 10%
grains grains
Crystalline Boundstone Grainstone Packstone Wackstone Mud
carbonate stone
Dunham Classification
 5. Hardness
Hardness is a reflection of degree of
cementation.
1. Soft or friable
2. Moderately hard; fairly cemented.
3. Hard; moderately cemented.
4. Very hard; well cemented.
 6. Porosity
• Porosity could be estimated from hardness and
cementation.
• Archi classification
 matrix porosity
I. Compact, dense, hard
II. Chaiky, earthy, soft.
III. Sugary, loose, poorly cemented.
 Visible porosity
A. No visible pores w/ 10x
B. Visible w/ 10x
C. Visible w/ eye.
D. Larger than 2 mm
7. Minor constituents
Oil Shows Description
A. In Normal Light

• Percentage
 No visible stain
 Poor stain
 Fair stain
 Good stain
40%
 Oil Shows Description
A. In Normal Light
• Distribution
 Uniform Scattered
 Spoty Streaked
• Shade
 V. Light Light
 Medium Dark
 Very dark
• Hue
 Green
 Yellow
 Brown
 Black
Oil Shows Description
B. Under UV Light

• Intensity
 No florescence
 Faint
 Dull
 bright
 Oil Shows Description
B. Under UV light
• Distribution
 Uniform Scattered
 Spoty Streaked
• Shade
 V. Light Light
 Medium Dark
 Very dark
• Hue
 Blue
 white
 Yellow, Orange
 Gold
 Brown
 C. Cuts & D. Residual ring
• Stream cut: • Allow the solvent to
 Immediate evaporate,
 Fast
describe the
 Slow
• Discoloration
fluorescence of the
 Very slow ring as well as the
 Slow color of the ring in
 Fast the day light.
• Crush cut
 Poor
 Fair
 Good