correlational

research
Presented by: Noreen M. Albrando & Janssen M. Quinto
What is Correlational Research?

 The goal of correlational research is to describe the

relationship between variables and to measure the
strength of the relationship.
 Whether and to what degree variables are related
Correlational Research

 PURPOSE
 To determine relationships
 Make predictions
– Use one variable to predict the score on one
variable using knowledge about the other variable
 LIMITATION
 Cannot indicate cause and effect
Important NOTE

 Correlation can be positive or negative.

 The is no perfect 1:1 relationship between items.
 Correlations cannot tell us the cause of any
relationship
3 characteristics

A correlation describes three characteristics of a

relationship
 The direction (positive / negative) of the relationship;
 The form (linear / nonlinear) of the relationship; and
 The consistency or strength (magnitude) of the
relationship.
Direction

 In a positive relationship, there is a tendency for two

variables to change in the same direction.
 In a negative relationship, there is a tendency for two
variables to change in opposite directions.
Direction
Examples of positive & negative
relationships
2 forms of correlation

Linear correlation
• Data points in the scatter plot tend to cluster around a straight line.
The size of increase in Y is consistently predictable (not accurately).
• Ex: Teacher efficacy and teacher effectiveness

Monotonic (nonlinear) correlation

• The relationship is consistent and predictable, but not linear.
• Ex: Age and athletic ability
2 forms of correlation
2 forms of correlation
The Process

1. Problem Selection
 Variables to be correlated are selected on the basis of
some rationale.
• Math attitudes and math achievement
• Teachers’ sense of efficacy and their effectiveness
 Increases the ability to meaningfully interpret results
The Process

2. Inefficiency and difficulty interpreting the results from

a shotgun approach
 Possibility of erroneous relationships
 Issues related to determining statistical significance
The Process

3. Participant and instrument selection

 Minimum of 30 subjects
 Instruments must be valid and reliable
• Higher validity and reliability requires smaller
samples
• Lower validity and reliability requires larger samples.
The Process

4. Design and procedures

 Collect data on two or more variables for each
subject
5. Data analysis
 Compute the appropriate correlation coefficient
Correlation Coefficients

 A correlation coefficient identifies the size and

direction of a relationship
 Size / magnitude
• Ranges form 0.00 – 1.00
 Direction
• Positive or negative
Interpreting the SIZE of correlation

Criterion-related validity Inter-rater reliability

Above 0.90 is very good.
Above 0.60 for affective scales is
adequate
Between 0.80 and 0.89 is acceptable

Between 0.70 and 0.79 is minimally

acceptable
Above 0.80 for tests is minimally
acceptable
Lower than 0.69 is problematic
 Interpreting the DIRECTION of correlations

Positive
• High scores on the predictor are associate with high scores on the criterion

• Low scores on the predictor are associated with low scores on the criterion.

Negative
• High scores on the predictor are associated with low scores on the criterion.

• Low scores on the predictor are associated with high scores on the criterion.

Positive or negative does not mean good or bad.

Correlational Coefficients

 Interpreting the size and direction of correlations using the

general rule
 +.95 is a strong positive correlation
 +.50 is a moderate positive correlation
 +.20 is a low positive correlation
 -.26 is a low negative correlation
 -.49 is a moderate negative correlation
 -.95 is a strong negative correlation
Factors that Influence Correlations

 Sample size
o The larger the sample the higher the likelihood of a high correlation
o Analysis of subgroups
 If the total sample consists of males and females each gender represents
a subgroup
 Results across subgroups can be different because they are being
obscured by the analysis of the data for the total sample
 Reduces the size of the sample
 Potentially reduces variation in the scores
Factors that Influence Correlations

 Variation
 The greater the variation in scores the higher the likelihood of a
strong correlation
 The lower the variation in scores the higher the likelihood of a
weak correlation
 Attenuation
 Correlation coefficients are lower when the instruments being used
have low reliability
 A correction for attenuation is available
Prediction Studies

 Attempts to describe the predictive relationships between or

among variables
 The predictor variable is the variable from which the researcher
is predicting.
* A variable that is used to make a forecast about an outcome in the
correlational study
 The criterion variable is the variable to which the researcher is
predicting
* The outcome being predicted
Prediction Studies

 Predictor variables usually measured at one point in

time and the criterion variable at a later point in time.
 Purpose is to forecast future performance.
Prediction Studies

 Three purposes
 Facilitates decisions about individuals to help a
selection decision
 Tests variables believed to be good predictors of a
criterion
 Determines the predictive validity of an instrument
Conducting a Prediction Study

 Issues of concern
 Shrinkage – the tendency of a prediction equation to
become less accurate when used with a group other
than the one on which the equation was originally
developed
 Cross validation – validation of a prediction equation
with another group of subjects to identify problematic
variables
Conducting a Prediction Study

 Issues of concern (cont.)

 Errors of measurement (e.g., low validity or reliability) diminish the
accuracy of the prediction
 Intervening variables can influence the predictive process if there
is too much time between collecting the predictor and criterion
variables
 Criterion variables defined in general terms (e.g., teacher
effectiveness, success in school) tend to have lower prediction
accuracy than those defined very narrowly (e.g., overall GPA, test
scores)
Differences between Types of Studies
Relationship studies
develop insight into
the relationships
between variables.
• The measurement of all
variables occurs at about
the same time
Predictive studies
involve the predictive
relationships between
or among variables
• The predictor variables
are collected long before
the criterion variable.