METAL CUTTING

BTME-405
Theory Of Metal Machining
 The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations in which excess material
is removed from a starting work part so that what remains is the desired final geometry.

 Another group of material removal processes is the abrasive processes, which mechanically
remove material by the action of hard, abrasive particles. This process group, which includes
grinding.

 Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape.

 The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation of the work
material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
Classification of Material Removal Process
Machining
Machining is important commercially and technologically for several reasons:

 Variety of work materials: Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work materials.
Virtually all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and plastic composites can also be cut by
machining. Ceramics pose difficulties because of their high hardness and brittleness;
however, most ceramics can be successfully cut by the abrasive machining processes.

 Variety of part shapes and geometric features: Machining can be used to create any regular
geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and cylinders. By introducing variations in tool
shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries can be created, such as screw threads and T-slots.
By combining several machining operations in sequence, shapes of almost unlimited
complexity and variety can be produced.
Machining
Machining is important commercially and technologically for several reasons:

 Dimensional accuracy: Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances.

Some machining processes can achieve tolerances of 0.025 mm (0.001 in), much
more accurate than most other processes.

 Good surface finishes: Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface

finishes. Roughness values less than 0.4 microns (16 m-in.) can be achieved in
conventional machining operations. Some abrasive processes can achieve even better
finishes.
Machining
Certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other material removal
processes:

 Wasteful of material: Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The chips

generated in a machining operation are wasted material. Although these chips can
usually be recycled, they represent waste in terms of the unit operation.

 Time consuming: A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given
part than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.
Types of Machining Operations
 In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material froma
rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The speed-motion in turning is
provided by the rotating workpart, and the feed-motion is achieved by the cutting
tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.

 Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that

typically has two cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation into the workpart to form the round hole.

 In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is fed slowly across the work
material to generate a plane or straight surface.
Types of Machining Operations
The Three Most
Common Types Of
Machining Processes:
(a) Turning,
(b) Drilling
Two forms of milling:
(c) Peripheral Milling,
and
(d) Face Milling.
Types of Machining Operations
 Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching, and
sawing.

 Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category
of machining.

 These processes commonly follow the conventional machining operations and are
used to achieve a superior surface finish on the workpart.
The Cutting Tool
 A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work
material.

 A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as turning. In
addition to the tool features, there is one tool point from which the name of this cutting tool
is derived. During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work
surface of the part.

 Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their
motion relative to the workpart by rotating.

 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools.

The Cutting Tool

(a)A single-point tool (b) a helical milling cutter,

Cutting Conditions
 Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining
operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed v.

 In addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower
motion, called the feed f.

 The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the
original work surface, called the depth of cut d.

 Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions. They
form the three dimensions of the machining process.
Cutting Conditions
 They can be used to calculate the material removal rate for the process:

RMR = vfd

 Where RMR is material removal rate, mm3/s (in3/min); v is cutting speed, m/s
(ft/min),which must be converted to mm/s (in/min); f is feed, mm (in); and d is depth
of cut, mm.
Machine Tools
 A machine tool is used to hold the workpart, position the tool relative to the work, and
provide power for the machining process at the speed, feed, and depth that have been set.

 By controlling the tool, work, and cutting conditions, machine tools permit parts to be made
with great accuracy and repeatability, to tolerances of 0.025 mm (0.001 in) and better.

 The term machine tool applies to any power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding.

 The term is also applied to machines that perform metal forming and press-working
operations
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
 The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool are the orthogonal
(2 D) and oblique (3D).

 Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is 90 degree to the
line of action of the tool.

 If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to the line of action of
the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Oblique Cutting
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view,
showing the inclination angle i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination
angles
Orthogonal Cutting
Assumptions in orthogonal metal cutting

 • No contact at the flank i.e. the tool is perfectly sharp.

 • No side flow of chips i.e. width of the chips remains constant.

 • Uniform cutting velocity.

 • A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.

 • The chip is considered to be held in equilibrium by the action of the twoequal and
opposite resultant forces R and R/ and assume that the resultant is collinear.
Orthogonal Cutting
 During metal cutting, the metal is severely compressed in the area in front of the cutting tool.

 This causes high temperature shear, and plastic flow if the metal is ductile.

 When the stress in the workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches a value exceeding the
ultimate strength of the metal, particles will shear to form a chip element, which moves up
along the face of the work.

 The outward or shearing movement of each successive element is arrested by work

hardening and the movement transferred to the next element.

 The process is repetitive and a continuous chip is formed.

 The plane along which the element shears, is called shear plane.
THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION
 Only at the sharp cutting edge of the tool does failure of the material occur, resulting
in separation of the chip from the parent material. Along the shear plane, where the
bulk of the mechanical energy is consumed in machining, the material is plastically
deformed.

 The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of geometry: (1) rake angle and
(2) clearance angle.

 The rake angle a determines the direction that the chip flows as it is formed from the
workpart; and the clearance angle provides a small clearance between the tool flank
and the newly generated work surface.
THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION
 During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is positioned a certain distance below the
original work surface. This corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation, to. As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its thickness increases to
tc. The ratio of to to tc is called the chip thickness ratio (or simply the chip ratio) r:

 Since the chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the corresponding
thickness before cutting, the chip ratio will always be less than 1.0.
THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION

(a) as a three-dimensional process, and (b) how it reduces to two dimensions in the side view.
Actual Chip Formation
 First, the shear deformation process does not occur along a plane, but within a zone.

 If shearing were to take place across a plane of zero thickness, it would imply that
the shearing action must occur instantaneously as it passes through the plane, rather
than over some finite (although brief) time period.

 For the material to behave in a realistic way, the shear deformation must occur within
a thin shear zone
Actual Chip Formation
 Second, in addition to shear deformation that occurs in the shear zone, another
shearing action occurs in the chip after it has been formed.

 This additional shear is referred to as secondary shear to distinguish it from primary

shear.

 Secondary shear results from friction between the chip and the tool as the chip slides
along the rake face of the tool.

 Its effect increases with increased friction between the tool and chip.
Actual Chip Formation
 Third, formation of the chip depends on the type of material being machined and the
cutting conditions of the operation.
Types of Chip
1. Discontinuous chip:

 When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are

machined at low cutting speeds, the chips often form
into separate segments (sometimes the segments are
loosely attached).

 This tends to impart an irregular texture to the

machined surface. High tool–chip friction and large
feed and depth of cut promote the formation of this
chip type.
Types of Chip
2. Continuous chip:

 When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and

relatively small feeds and depths, long continuous chips are
formed.

 A good surface finish typically results when this chip type is

formed.

 A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip friction

encourage the formation of continuous chips.

 Long, continuous chips (as in turning) can cause problems

with regard to chip disposal and/or tangling about the tool.
Types of Chip
3. Continuous chip with built-up edge :

 When machining ductile materials at low-to medium cutting speeds,

friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work
material to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge.
This formation is called a built-up edge (BUE).

 Much of the detached BUE is carried away with the chip,

sometimes taking portions of the tool rake face with it, which
reduces the life of the cutting tool. Portions of the detached BUE
that are not carried off with the chip become imbedded in the newly
created work surface, causing the surface to become rough.
Types of Chip
4. Serrated chips (the term shear-localized is also used for this
fourth chip type) :

 These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they

possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a cyclical
chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed by
low shear strain.

 This fourth type of chip is most closely associated with

certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys,
nickel-base super alloys, and austenitic stainless steels when
they are machined at higher cutting speeds.
Single point Cutting Tool
Single Point Cutting Tool
Single Point Cutting Tool
(i) Back rake angle:

 It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a
perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose,
it is negative back rake angle and if it is upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. This
angle helps in removing the chips away from the work piece.

(ii) Side rake angle:

 It is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined side ways. This angle of tool determines the
thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to provide clearance between
work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of work- piece with end flake of tool. It is the
angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the line down from the point
perpendicular to the base.
Single Point Cutting Tool
(iii) End relief angle

It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the work- piece. It is defined as the angle
between the portion of the end flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the
base of the tool, measured at right angles to the flank. Some time extra end clearance is also provided on the
tool that is also known as end clearance angle. It is the secondary angle directly below the end relief angle

(iv) Side relief angle

It is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the material. It is the angle between the portion
of the side flank immediately below the side edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured
at right angles to the side. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the work
piece surface. Some time extra side clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as side
clearance angle.
Single Point Cutting Tool
(v) End cutting edge angle

It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the shank of

the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and work piece.

(vi) Side cutting edge angle

It is the angle between straight cutting edge on the side of tool and the side of the
shank. It is also known as lead angle. It is responsible for turning the chip away from
the finished surface.
Single Point Cutting Tool
Selection Of Cutting Speed And Feed
The selection of cutting speed and feed is based on the following parameters:

• Workpiece material

• Tool Material

• Tool geometry and dimensions

• Size of chip cross-section

• Types of finish desired

• Rigidity of the machine

• Types of coolant used

TOOL LIFE
there are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail in machining:

1. Fracture failure. This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool
point becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.

2. Temperature failure. This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too
high for the tool material, causing the material at the tool point to soften, which
leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge.

3. Gradual wear. Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape,
reduction in cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes
heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.
Tool Wear
 Crater wear consists of a cavity in the rake face of the tool that forms and grows
from the action of the chip sliding against the surface. High stresses and
temperatures characterize the tool–chip contact interface, contributing to the
wearing action. The crater can be measured either by its depth or its area.

 Flank wear occurs on the flank, or relief face, of the tool. It results from rubbing
between the newly generated work surface and the flank face adjacent to the
cutting edge. Flank wear is measured by the width of the wear band, FW. This
wear band is sometimes called the flank wear land.
Tool Wear
 Certain features of flank wear can be identified. First, an extreme condition of
flank wear often appears on the cutting edge at the location corresponding to the
original surface of the workpart. This is called Notch wear.
Tool Wear
 A second region of flank wear that can be identified is nose radius wear; this occurs on the nose
radius leading into the end cutting edge.

The mechanisms that cause wear at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces in machining can be
summarized as follows:

 Abrasion. This is a mechanical wearing action caused by hard particles in the work material
gouging and removing small portions of the tool. This abrasive action occurs in both flank wear
and crater wear; it is a significant cause of flank wear.

 Adhesion. When two metals are forced into contact under high pressure and temperature, adhesion
or welding occur between them. These conditions are present between the chip and the rake face of
the tool. As the chip flows across the tool, small particles of the tool are broken away from the
surface, resulting in attrition of the surface.
Tool Wear
 Diffusion. This is a process in which an exchange of atoms takes place across a close contact boundary between two
materials. In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the tool–chip boundary, causing the tool surface to become
depleted of the atoms responsible for its hardness. As this process continues, the tool surface becomes more
susceptible to abrasion and adhesion. Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of crater wear.

 Chemical reactions. The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the tool–chip interface in machining at high
speeds can result in chemical reactions, in particular, oxidation, on the rake face of the tool. The oxidized layer,
being softer than the parent tool material, is sheared away, exposing new material to sustain the reaction process.

 Plastic deformation. Another mechanism that contributes to tool wear is plastic deformation of the cutting edge.
The cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature cause the edge to deform plastically, making it
more vulnerable to abrasion of the tool surface. Plastic deformation contributes mainly to flank wear.
Tool Materials
The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three important properties required in a tool material:

 Toughness. To avoid fracture failure, the tool material must possess high toughness. Toughness is the
capacity of a material to absorb energy without failing. It is usually characterized by a combination of
strength and ductility in the material.

 Hot hardness. Hot hardness is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at high temperatures. This
is required because of the high-temperature environment in which the tool operates.

 Wear resistance. Hardness is the single most important property needed to resist abrasive wear. All
cutting-tool materials must be hard. However, wear resistance in metal cutting depends on more than
just tool hardness, because of the other tool-wear mechanisms.

 Other characteristics affecting wear resistance include surface finish on the tool (a smoother surface
means a lower coefficient of friction), chemistry of tool and work materials, and whether a cutting fluid
is used.
Tool Materials
 Wear Resistance: The tool-chip and chip-work interface are exposed to severe
conditions that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. Wear resistance means the
attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to be replaced.

 Low friction: The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should be low. This
would lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.

 Thermal characteristics: Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting zone, the tool
material should have higher thermal conductivity to dissipate the heat in shortest possible
time, otherwise the tool temperature would become high, reducing its life.
Tool Materials
Success in metal cutting depends on selection of the proper cutting tool (material and
geometry) for a given work material.

 A wide range of cutting tool materials is available with a variety of properties,

performance capabilities, and cost.

These include:

 High carbon Steels and low/medium alloy steels,

 High‐speed steels,

 Cast cobalt alloys,

Tool Materials
 Cemented carbides,

 Cast carbides,

 Coated carbides,

 Coated high speed steels,

 Ceramics,

 Cermets,

 Whisker reinforced ceramics,

 Sialons,

 Sintered polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (CBN),

 Sintered polycrystalline diamond, and single‐crystal natural diamond.

Carbon Steels
 Limited tool life. Therefore, not suited to mass production

 Can be formed into complex shapes for small production runs

 Low cost

 Suited to hand tools, and wood working

 Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a hardness ABOUT 62 C Rockwell

 Maximum cutting speeds about 26 ft/min. dry

 The hot hardness value is low. This is the major factor in tool life.
High Speed Steel
 These steels are used for cutting metals at a much higher cutting speed than
ordinary carbon tool steels.

 The high speed steels have the valuable property of retaining their hardness even
when heated to red heat.

 Most of the high speed steels contain tungsten as the chief alloying element, but
other elements like cobalt, chromium, vanadium, etc. may be present in some
proportion.
High Speed Steel
With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS (tools) and their application range
were gradually enhanced by improving its properties and surface condition through ‐

 Refinement of microstructure

 Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to increase hot hardness and
wear resistance respectively

 Manufacture by powder metallurgical process

 Surface coating with heat and wear resistive materials like TiC , TiN , etc by
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)
High Speed Steel
18‐4‐1 High speed steel Composition:

 This steel contains 18 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium and 1 per cent
vanadium.

 It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels.

 It is widely used for drills, lathe, planer and shaper tools, milling cutters, reamers,
broaches, threading dies, punches, etc.
High Speed Steel
Molybdenum high speed steel Composition:

 This steel contains 6 per cent tungsten, 6 per cent molybdenum, 4 per cent
chromium and 2 per cent vanadium.

 It has excellent toughness and cutting ability.

 The molybdenum high speed steels are better and cheaper than other types of
steels.

 It is particularly used for drilling and tapping operations.

High Speed Steel
Super high speed steel Composition:

 This steel is also called cobalt high speed steel because cobalt is added from 2 to
15 per cent, in order to increase the cutting efficiency especially at high
temperatures.

 This steel contains 20 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium, 2 per cent
vanadium and 12 per cent cobalt.
Cast cobalt alloys/Stellite
 Cast cobalt alloys are cobalt‐rich, chromium‐tungsten‐ carbon cast alloys having
properties and applications in the intermediate range between high‐speed steel and
cemented carbides.

 Although comparable in room‐temperature hardness to highspeed steel tools, cast cobalt

alloy tools retain their hardness to a much higher temperature. Consequently, they can be
used at higher cutting speeds (25% higher) than HSS tools.

 Cutting speed of up to 80‐100 fpm can be used on mild steels.

 Cast cobalt alloys are hard as cast and cannot be softened or heat treated.

 Cast cobalt alloys contain a primary phase of Co‐rich solid solution strengthened by Cr
and W and dispersion hardened by complex hard, refractory carbides of W and Cr.
Cast cobalt alloys/Stellite
 Other elements added include V, B, Ni, and Ta.

 Tools of cast cobalt alloys are generally cast to shape and finished to size by grinding.

 They are available only in simple shapes, such as single point tools and saw blades, because of
limitations in the casting process and expense involved in the final shaping (grinding). The high
cost of fabrication is due primarily to the high hardness of the material in the as‐cast condition.

 Materials machinable with this tool material include plaincarbon steels, alloy steels, nonferrous
alloys, and cast iron.

 Cast cobalt alloys are currently being phased out for cutting‐tool applications because of
increasing costs, shortages of strategic raw materials (Co, W, and Cr), and the development of
other, superior tool materials at lower cost.
Cemented Carbides
 Carbides, which are nonferrous alloys, are also called, sintered (or cemented) carbides
because they are manufactured by powder metallurgy techniques.

 Most carbide tools in use today are either straight tungsten carbide (WC) or multicarbides
of W‐Ti or WTi‐Ta, depending on the work material to be machined.

 Cobalt is the binder.

 These tool materials are much harder, are chemically more stable, have better hot
hardness, high stiffness, and lower friction, and operate at higher cutting speeds than do
HSS.

 They are more brittle and more expensive and use strategic metals (W, Ta, Co) more
extensively.
Cemented Carbides
 Cemented carbide tool materials based on TiC have been developed, primarily for
auto industry applications using predominantly Ni and Mo as a binder. These are
used for higher‐speed (> 1000 ft/min) finish machining of steels and some
malleable cast irons.

 Cemented carbide tools are available in insert form in many different shapes;
squares, triangles, diamonds, and rounds.

 Compressive strength is high compared to tensile strength, therefore the bits are
often brazed to steel shanks, or used as inserts in holders.

 These inserts may often have negative rake angles.

Cemented Carbides
 Speeds up to 300 fpm are common on mild steels

 Hot hardness properties are very good

 Coolants and lubricants can be used to increase tool life, but are not required.

 Special alloys are needed to cut steel

Cemented Carbides
 The standards developed by ISO for grouping of carbide tools and their
application ranges are given in Table below.
Cemented Carbides
 Table below shows detail grouping of cemented carbide tools
Cemented Carbides
 Table below shows detail grouping of cemented carbide tools
Ceramics
 Ceramics are essentially alumina ( 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ) based high refractory materials
introduced specifically for high speed machining of difficult to machine materials
and cast iron.

 These can withstand very high temperatures, are chemically more stable, and have
higher wear resistance than the other cutting tool materials.

 In view of their ability to withstand high temperatures, they can be used for
machining at very high speeds of the order of 10 m/s.

 They can be operated at from two to three times the cutting speeds of tungsten
carbide.
Ceramics
Ceramics
 It is possible to get mirror finish on cast iron using ceramic turning.

 The main problems of ceramic tools are their low strength, poor thermal
characteristics, and the tendency to chipping.

 They are not suitable for intermittent cutting or for low cutting speeds.

 Very high hot hardness properties

 Often used as inserts in special holders.

Ceramics
 Through last few years remarkable improvements in strength and toughness and
hence overall performance of ceramic tools could have been possible by several
means which include;

 Sinterability, microstructure, strength and toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were

improved to some extent by adding TiO2 and MgO,

 Transformation toughening by adding appropriate amount of partially or fully

stabilised zirconia in Al2O3 powder,

 Isostatic and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) – these are very effective but expensive
route.
Ceramics
 Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering technique – this material is very
tough but prone to built‐up edge formation in machining steels

 Developing SIALON – deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3 and Si3N4

 Adding carbide like TiC (5 ~ 15%) in Al2O3 powder – to impart toughness and thermal
conductivity

 Reinforcing oxide or nitride ceramics by SiC whiskers, which enhanced strength,

toughness and life of the tool and thus productivity spectacularly.

 Toughening Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like silver which also impart thermal
conductivity and self lubricating property; this novel and inexpensive tool is still in
experimental stage.
Ceramics
 Cutting fluid, if applied should in flooding with copious quantity of fluid, to
thoroughly wet the entire machining zone, since ceramics have very poor thermal
shock resistance. Else, it can be machined with no coolant.

 Ceramic tools are used for machining work pieces, which have high hardness,
such as hard castings, case hardened and hardened steel.

 Typical products can be machined are brake discs, brake drums, cylinder liners
and flywheels.
Ceramics
High Performance ceramics (HPC)
Coated Carbide Tools
 Coated tools are becoming the norm in the metalworking industry because coating
, can consistently improve, tool life 200 or 300% or more.

 In cutting tools, material requirements at the surface of the tool need to be

abrasion resistant, hard, and chemically inert to prevent the tool and the work
material from interacting chemically with each other during cutting.

 A thin, chemically stable, hard refractory coating of TiC, TiN, or Al2O3

accomplishes this objective.

 The bulk of the tool is a tough, shock‐resistant carbide that can withstand
high‐temperature plastic deformation and resist breakage.
Coated Carbide Tools
 The coatings must be fine grained, & free of binders and porosity.

 Naturally, the coatings must be metallurgically bonded to the substrate.

 Interface coatings are graded to match the properties of the coating and the substrate.

 The coatings must be thick enough to prolong tool life but thin enough to prevent
brittleness.

 Coatings should have a low coefficient of friction so that the chips do not adhere to the
rake face.

 Multiple coatings are used, with each layer imparting its own characteristic to the tool.
Coated Carbide Tools
 The most successful combinations are TiN/TiC/TiCN/TiN and TiN/TiC/ .

 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is the technique used to coat carbides.

TiN‐Coated High‐Speed Steel
 Coated high‐speed steel (HSS) does not routinely provide as dramatic
improvements in cutting speeds as do coated carbides, with increases of 10 to
20% being typical.

 In addition to hobs, gear‐shaper cutters, and drills, HSS tooling coated by TiN
now includes reamers, taps, chasers, spade‐drill blades, broaches, bandsaw and
circular saw blades, insert tooling, form tools, end mills, and an assortment of
other milling cutters.
TiN‐Coated High‐Speed Steel
 Physical vapour deposition (PVD) has proved to be the best process for coating
HSS, primarily because it is a relatively low temperature process that does not
exceed the tempering point of HSS.

 Therefore, no subsequent heat treatment of the cutting tool is required.

 The advantage of TiN‐coated HSS tooling is reduced tool wear.

 Less tool wear results in less stock removal during tool regrinding, thus allowing
individual tools to be reground more times.
Cermets
 These sintered hard inserts are made by combining ‘cer’ from ceramics like TiC, TiN or TiCN and ‘met’
from metal (binder) like Ni, Ni‐Co, Fe etc.

 Harder, more chemically stable and hence more wear resistant

 More brittle and less thermal shock resistant

 Wt% of binder metal varies from 10 to 20%.

 Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in coated carbide inserts

 Can machine steels at higher cutting velocity than that used for tungsten carbide, even coated carbides
in case of light cuts.

 Modern cermets with rounded cutting edges are suitable for finishing and semi‐finishing of steels at
higher speeds, stainless steels but are not suitable for jerky interrupted machining and machining of
aluminium and similar materials.
Diamond
 Diamond is the hardest of all the cutting tool materials.

 Diamond has the following properties:

 extreme hardness,
 low thermal expansion,
 high heat conductivity, and
 a very low co‐efficient of friction.

 This is used when good surface finish and dimensional accuracy are desired.

 The work‐materials on which diamonds are successfully employed are the non‐ferrous one, such as
copper, brass, zinc, aluminium and magnesium alloys.

 On ferrous materials, diamonds are not suitable because of the diffusion of carbon atoms from diamond
to the work‐piece material.
Diamond
 Diamond tools have the applications in single point turning and boring tools, milling cutters,
reamers, grinding wheels, honing tools, lapping powder and for grinding wheel dressing.

 Due to their brittle nature, the diamond tools have poor resistance to shock and so, should be
loaded lightly.

 Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a thin layer (0.5 to 1.5 mm) of'fine grain‐ size
diamond particles sintered together and metallurgically bonded to a cemented carbide substrate.

 The main advantages of sintered polycrystalline tools over natural single‐crystal tools are better
quality, greater toughness, and improved wear resistance, resulting from the random orientation of
the diamond grains and the lack of large cleavage planes.
Diamond
 Diamond tools offer dramatic performance improvements over carbides. Tool life
is often greatly improved, as is control over part size, finish, and surface integrity.

 Positive rake tooling is recommended for the vast majority of diamond tooling
applications.

 If BUE is a problem, increasing cutting speed and the use of more positive rake
angles may eliminate it.

 Oxidation of diamond starts at about 450oC and thereafter it can even crack. For
this reason the diamond tool is kept flooded by the coolant during cutting, and
light feeds are used.
Cubic boron nitride/Borazon
 Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest material presently available.

 It is made by bonding a 0.5 – 1 mm layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to

cobalt based carbide substrate at very high temperature and pressure.

 It remains inert and retains high hardness and fracture toughness at elevated
machining speeds.

 It shows excellent performance in grinding any material of high hardness and

strength.
Cubic boron nitride/Borazon
 The operative speed range for cBN when machining grey cast iron is 300 ~400 m/min

 Speed ranges for other materials are as follows:

 Hard cast iron (> 400 BHN) : 80 – 300 m/min

 Superalloys (> 35 RC) : 80 – 140 m/min

 Hardened steels (> 45 RC) : 100 – 300 m/min

 It is best to use cBN tools with a honed or chamfered edge preparation, especially for
interrupted cuts. Like ceramics, cBN tools are also available only in the form of
indexable inserts.

 The only limitation of it is its high cost.

Cubic boron nitride/Borazon
 CBN is less reactive with such materials as hardened steels, hard‐chill cast iron,
and nickel‐ and cobalt based superalloys.

 CBN can be used efficiently and economically to machine these

difficult‐to‐machine materials at higher speeds (fivefold) and with a higher
removal rate (fivefold) than cemented carbide, and with superior accuracy, finish,
and surface integrity.
Cubic boron nitride/Borazon
 Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and toughness and tungsten
carbides for heat and wear resistance.

 Microfine TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix.

 Unlike a solid carbide, the coronite based tool is made of three layers;
 the central HSS or spring steel core

 a layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool diameter

 a thin (2 to 5 μm) PVD coating of TiCN

 The coronite tools made by hot extrusion followed by PVD coating of TiN or TiCN
outperformed HSS tools in respect of cutting forces, tool life and surface finish.
Attrition wear
 The strong bonding between the chip and tool material at high temperature is conducive
for adhesive wear.

 The adhesive wear in the rough region is called attrition wear .

 In the rough region, some parts of the worn surface are still covered by molten chip and
the irregular attrition wear occurs in this region .

 The irregular attrition wear is due to the intermittent adhesion during interrupted cutting
which makes a periodic attachment and detachment of the work material on the tool
surface.

 Therefore, when the seizure between workpiece to tool is broken, the small fragments of
tool material are plucked and brought away by the chip..
Tool life
 Break-in period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears rapidly at the beginning of its
use. This first region occurs within the first few minutes of cutting.

 The break-in period is followed by wear that occurs at a fairly uniform rate. This is called
the steady-state wear region. In our figure, this region is pictured as a linear function of
time, although there are deviations from the straight line in actual machining. Finally,
wear reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to accelerate.

 This marks the beginning of the failure region, in which cutting temperatures are higher,
and the general efficiency of the machining process is reduced. If allowed to continue, the
tool finally fails by temperature failure.
Tool life
Tool life criteria
 Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used. Operating the
tool until final catastrophic failure is one way of defining tool life.

 Tool life criteria can be defined as a predetermined numerical value of any type of tool
deterioration which can be measured.

 Some of the ways

 Actual cutting time to failure.
 Volume of metal removed.
 Number of parts produced.
 Cutting speed for a given time
 Length of work machined.
Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
 Based on Flank Wear

 Causes

 Sliding of the tool along the machined surface

 Temperature rise

VTn = C
 Where, V = cutting speed (m/min)

 T = Time (min)

 n = exponent depends on tool material

 C = constant based on tool and work material and cutting condition.

Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
 Values of Exponent ‘n’

 n = 0.08 to 0.2 for HSS tool

= 0.1 to 0.15 for Cast Alloys

= 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tool

= 0.5 to 0.7 for ceramic tool

Extended Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
Chip Breakers
 Chip breakers are frequently used with single-point tools to force the chips to curl
more tightly than they would naturally be inclined to do, thus causing them to
fracture. (a) groove-type chip breaker designed into the cutting tool itself, and (b)
obstruction-type chip breaker designed as an additional device on the rake face of
the tool
Three ways of holding and presenting the
cutting edge for a single-point tool
Inserts

Common insert shapes: (a) round, (b) square, (c) rhombus with two 80 point angles, (d) hexagon with
three 80 point angles, (e) triangle (equilateral), (f) rhombus with two 55 point angles, (g) rhombus with
two 35 point angles. Also shown are typical features of the geometry. Strength, power requirements,
and tendency for vibration increase as we move to the left; whereas versatility and accessibility tend
to be better with the geometries at the right.
Inserts

Three types of edge preparation that are applied to the cutting edge of an insert:
(a) radius, (b) chamfer, (c) land, and (d) perfectly sharp edge (no edge preparation).
Standard geometry of a twist drill.
Standard geometry of a twist drill.
 The body of the drill has two spiral flutes (the spiral gives the twist drill its
name). The angle of the spiral flutes is called the helix angle, a typical value of
which is around 30o.

 While drilling, the flutes act as passageways for extraction of chips from the hole.
Although it is desirable for the flute openings to be large to provide maximum
clearance for the chips, the body of the drill must be supported over its length.

 This support is provided by the web, which is the thickness of the drill between
the flutes.
Standard geometry of a twist drill.
 The point of the twist drill has a conical shape.

 A typical value for the point angle is 118o . The point can be designed in various
ways, but the most common design is a chisel edge.

 Connected to the chisel edge are two cutting edges (sometimes called lips) that
lead into the flutes. The portion of each flute adjacent to the cutting edge acts as
the rake face of the tool.
Milling Cutter
 Plain milling cutters. These are used for peripheral or slab milling. they are cylinder
shaped with several rows of teeth. The cutting edges are usually oriented at a helix angle
(as in the figures) to reduce impact on entry into the work, and these cutters are called
helical milling cutters.

 Form milling cutters. These are peripheral milling cutters in which the cutting edges
have a special profile that is to be imparted to the work. An important application is in
gear making, in which the form milling cutter is shaped to cut the slots between adjacent
gear teeth, thereby leaving the geometry of the gear teeth.

 Face milling cutters. These are designed with teeth that cut on both the periphery as well
as the end of the cutter. Face milling cutters can be made of HSS.
Milling Cutter
 Face milling cutters. they can be designed to use cemented carbide inserts.

 End milling cutters. An end milling cutter looks like a drill bit, but close
inspection indicates that it is designed for primary cutting with its peripheral teeth
rather than its end. (A drill bit cuts only on its end as it penetrates into the work.)
End mills are designed with square ends, ends with radii, and ball ends. End mills
can be used for face milling, profile milling and pocketing, cutting slots,
engraving, surface contouring, and die sinking.
Milling Cutter
Milling Cutter
Broaches
Cutting Fluid
 A cutting fluid is any liquid or gas that is applied directly to the machining operation to
improve cutting performance.

 Cutting fluids address two main problems:

 Heat generation at the shear zone and friction zone,

 Friction at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces.

 In addition to removing heat and reducing friction, cutting fluids provide additional
benefits, such as washing away chips (especially in grinding and milling), reducing the
temperature of the workpart for easier handling, reducing cutting forces and power
requirements, improving dimensional stability of the workpart, and improving surface
finish.
Types of Cutting Fluid
 Coolants are cutting fluids designed to reduce the effects of heat in the machining operation.

 They have a limited effect on the amount of heat energy generated in cutting; instead, they carry
away the heat that is generated, thereby reducing the temperature of tool and workpiece.

 This helps to prolong the life of the cutting tool. The capacity of a cutting fluid to reduce
temperatures in machining depends on its thermal properties.

 Coolant-type cutting fluids seem to be most effective at relatively high cutting speeds, in which
heat generation and high temperatures are problems.

 They are most effective on tool materials that are most susceptible to temperature failures, such as
highspeed steels
Types of Cutting Fluid
 Lubricants are usually oil-based fluids (because oils possess good lubricating qualities)
formulated to reduce friction at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces.

 Lubricant cutting fluids operate by extreme pressure lubrication, a special form of

lubrication that involves formation of thin solid salt layers on the hot, clean metal
surfaces through chemical reaction with the lubricant.

 Compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus in the lubricant cause the formation of
these surface layers, which act to separate the two metal surfaces (i.e., chip and
tool).These extreme pressure films are significantly more effective in reducing friction in
metal cutting than conventional lubrication
Types of Cutting Fluid
 There are four categories of cutting fluids according to chemical formulation:

 Cutting oils

 Emulsified oils

 Semichemical fluids

 Chemical fluids.

 All of these cutting fluids provide both coolant and lubricating functions. The cutting oils
are most effective as lubricants, whereas the other three categories are more effective as
coolants because they are primarily water.
Types of Cutting Fluid
 Cutting oils are based on oil derived from petroleum, animal, marine, or vegetable
origin. Mineral oils (petroleum based) are the principal type because of their abundance
and generally desirable lubricating characteristics.

 To achieve maximum lubricity, several types of oils are often combined in the same fluid.
Chemical additives are also mixed with the oils to increase lubricating qualities.

 These additives contain compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus, and are designed
to react chemically with the chip and tool surfaces to form solid films(extreme pressure
lubrication) that help to avoid metal-to-metal contact between the two.
Types of Cutting Fluid
 Emulsified oils consist of oil droplets suspended in water.

 The fluid is made by blending oil (usually mineral oil) in water using an emulsifying
agent to promote blending and stability of the emulsion.

 A typical ratio of water to oil is 30:1. Chemical additives based on sulfur, chlorine, and
phosphorus are often used to promote extreme pressure lubrication.

 Because they contain both oil and water, the emulsified oils combine coolingand
lubricating qualities in one cutting fluid.
Types of Cutting Fluid
 Chemical fluids are chemicals in a water solution rather than oils in emulsion. The
dissolved chemicals include compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus, plus wetting
agents. The chemicals are intended to provide some degree of lubrication to the solution.
Chemical fluids provide good coolant qualities but their lubricating qualities are less than
the other cutting fluid types.

 Semichemical fluids have small amounts of emulsified oil added to increase the
lubricating characteristics of the cutting fluid. In effect, they are a hybrid class between
chemical fluids and emulsified oils.
Types of Cutting Fluid
Application Methods

 The most common method is flooding, sometimes called flood cooling because it is
generally used with coolant-type cutting fluids. In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is
directed at the tool–work or tool–chip interface of the machining operation.

 A second method of delivery is mist application, primarily used for water based cutting
fluids. In this method the fluid is directed at the operation in the form of a high-speed
mist carried by a pressurized air stream. Mist application is generally not as effective as
flooding in cooling the tool.
Types of Cutting Fluid
Application Methods

 However, because of the high-velocity air stream, mist application may be more effective
in delivering the cutting fluid to areas that are difficult to access by conventional
flooding.

 Manual application by means of a squirt can or paint brush is sometimes used for
applying lubricants in tapping and other operations in which cutting speeds are low and
friction is a problem. It is generally not preferred by most production machine shops
because of its variability in application.
Machinability
 Machinability denotes the relative ease with which a material (usually ametal) can be
machined using appropriate tooling and cutting conditions.

 There are various criteria used to evaluate machinability, the most important of which
are:

 tool life,

 forces and power,

 surface finish

 ease of chip disposal.

Selection of Speed and feed
 feed first, speed second. Determining the appropriate feed rate for a given machining
operation depends on the following factors:

 Tooling. What type of tooling will be used? Harder tool materials (e.g., cemented
carbides, ceramics, etc.) tend to fracture more readily than high-speed steel. These tools
are normally used at lower feed rates. HSS can tolerate higher feeds because of its greater
toughness.

 Roughing or finishing. Roughing operations involve high feeds, typically 0.5 to 1.25
mm/rev (0.020 to 0.050 in/rev) for turning; finishing operations involve low feeds,
typically 0.125 to 0.4 mm/rev (0.005 to 0.015 in/rev) for turning.
Selection of Speed and Feed
 Constraints on feed in roughing. If the operation is roughing, how high can the feed
rate be set? To maximize metal removal rate, feed should be set as high as possible.
Upper limits on feed are imposed by cutting forces, setup rigidity, and sometimes
horsepower.

 Surface finish requirements in finishing. If the operation is finishing, what is the

desired surface finish? Feed is an important factor in surface finish, and computations can
be used to estimate the feed that will produce a desired surface finish.