第六章

抽樣設計
Population Sample
母體 樣本

 Sampling
x
σ2 抽樣 Ѕ2

Generalization

推論
Parameter Statistic
參數 統計量
Why sample?
 Lower cost
 Greater accuracy of results
 Greater speed of data collection
 Availability of population elements
 Sample vs. Census
What is a good sample
 Accuracy
• Systematic variance 系統變異
• The variation in measures due to some known or unknown
influences that “cause” the scores (results) to lean in one
direction more than another

 Precision
• Sampling error 抽樣誤差
• the degree to which a given sample differs from the underlying
population
• sampling error tends to be high with small sample sizes and
will decrease as sample size increases
誤差
 Differences between parameters and
statistics=error
• sampling error 抽樣誤差
• Systematic error 系統變異 (also called
measurement error)
Target Population
 group to which you wish to generalize the
results of the study

 should be defined as specifically as possible

 sampling sample
population
frame

 Sampling frame 抽樣主體

• the list of elements from which the sample is
actually drawn
Steps in sampling design
 What is the population?
 What are the parameters of interest?
 What is the sampling frame?
 What is the type of sample?
 What size sample is needed?
 How much will it cost?
What is the population
 Clearly define your population of interest
 Population vs. research subjects
What are the parameters of Interest?

 Summary of descriptors (mean, variance) of

variables in the population
 Issue of the scale of measurement
What is the sampling frame?
 the list of elements from which the sample
is actually drawn
What is the type of sample?
 Probability sample vs. nonprobability
sample
What size sample is needed?
 The larger, the better
Sampling Techniques
 Probability Sampling (random sampling) 隨
機抽樣

 Nonprobability Sampling (nonrandom

sampling) 非隨機抽樣
Probability Sampling
 sample should represent the population

 using random selection methods

 members of the population have a known

and non-zero chance of being selected
(EPSEM: Equal Probability of SElection
Method)
Types of Probability Sampling
 Simple random sampling簡單隨機抽樣

 Systematic sampling系統式抽樣

 Stratified sampling 分層隨機抽樣

 Cluster sampling 部落抽樣

 Double sampling 雙重抽樣

Simple Random Sampling
 every unit in the population has an equal
and known probability of being selected as
part of the sample (抽籤)
Random Numbers Table 亂數表
 a table of random digits arranged in rows
and columns

 after assigning an identification number to

each member of the population, numbers in
the random numbers table are used to select
those who will be in the sample
 亂數表
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1
49486 93775 88744 80091 92732 38532 41506 54131 44804 43637
2
94860 36746 04571 13150 65383 44616 97170 25057 02212 41930
3
10169 95685 47585 53247 60900 20097 97962 04267 29283 07550
4
12018 45351 15671 23026 55344 54654 73717 97666 00730 89083
5
45611 71585 61487 87434 07498 60596 36255 82880 84381 30433
6
89137 30984 18842 69619 53872 95200 76474 67528 14870 59628
7
94541 12057 30771 19598 96069 10399 50649 41909 09994 75322
8
89920 28843 87599 30181 26839 02162 56676 39342 95045 60146
9
32472 32796 15255 39636 90819 54150 24064 50514 15194 41450
10
63958 47944 82888 66709 66525 67616 75709 56879 29649 07325
Characteristics of simple random
sampling
 Unbiased: 母體內每一個體被抽到的機會
均等

 Independence : 母體內某一個個體被抽到
不會影響其他個體被抽到的機會
Limitations of simple random
samples
 not practical for large populations

 Simple random sampling becomes difficult

when we don’t have a list of the population
Systematic Sampling系統性抽樣
 a type of probability sampling in which
every kth member of the population is
selected

 k=N/n
N = size of the population
n = sample size
For example:

You want to obtain a sample of 100 from a

population of 1,000. You would select every
10th (or kth) person from the list.

k = 1000/100=10
Advantages/disadvantages of
systematic sampling
 Assuming availability of a list of population
members

 Randomness of the sample depends on

randomness of the list
• periodicity bias: 當母體個體排序出現某一週
期性或規則時, systematic sampling 會有週期
性誤差(periodicity bias)
Stratified Random Sample分層隨機
抽樣
 Prior to random sampling, the population is
divided into subgroups, called strata, e.g.,
gender, ethnic groups, professions, etc.依母
體特性將個體分層(Strata) & 每一個體只
屬一層

 Subjects are then randomly selected from

each strata再從每一層中隨機抽取樣本
(using simple random sampling)
第一層

第二層
Sample
第三層
..
..
.
第K層
 Homogeneity is very high within the strata.

 Heterogeneity is very high between the stratas

Why use stratified samples?
 permits examination of subgroups by ensuring
sufficient numbers of subjects within subgroups
確保樣本包含母體中各種不同特性的個體，增
加樣本的代表性

 generally more convenient than a simple random

sample
Potential disadvantages
 Sometimes the exact composition of the
population is often unknown

 with multiple stratifying variables, sampling

designs can become quite complex
Types of Stratified Sampling
 Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
比例分層隨機抽樣

 Disproportionate Stratified Random

Sampling非比例分層隨機抽樣
Proportionate Sampling
 strata sample sizes are proportional to
population subgroup sizes按母體比例抽取
樣本

• e.g., if a group represents 15% of the

population, the stratum representing that group
will comprise 15% of the sample
Disproportionate Sampling
 strata sample sizes are not proportional to
population subgroup sizes每層抽出之樣本
數不能與母體之特徵比例相呼應

 may be used to achieve equal sample sizes

across strata
For example:

Suppose a researcher plans to conduct a survey

regarding various attitudes of Agricultural College
Students at Tunghai U. He wishes to compare perceptions
across 4 major groups but finds some of the groups are
quite small relative to the overall student population.
As a result, he decides to over-sample minority students.
For example, although Hospitality students only represent
10% of the Agricultural student population, he uses a
disproportional stratified sample so that Hospitality
students will comprise 25% of his sample.
Cluster Sampling部落抽樣
 used when subjects are randomly sampled
from within a “unit” or “group” (e.g.,
classroom, school, country, etc)
 將母體分為若干部落 (cluster)，在自所有
部落中隨機抽取若干部落樣本並對這些
抽取的部落作抽查
 一班

二班
二班
三班

四班
九班

五班

k班

Population Sample
Example
 台中市民眾對連戰出訪大陸的看法
 將台中市依“里”為部落分成許多里
 隨機抽取3個里然後對此3個里的居民作
全面性的訪問
 Compare using cluster sampling technique
and simple sampling technique
Why use cluster samples?
 They're easier to obtain than a simple
random or systematic sample of the same
size
Disadvantages of Cluster
Sampling
 Less accurate than other sampling
techniques (selection stages, accuracy)

 Generally leads to violation of an

assumption that subjects are independent
Double sampling 雙重抽樣法
 運用兩種不同的抽樣方法進行抽樣
 Systematic sample + cluster/stratified
sample
Nonprobability sampling
 Convenience sampling 簡便抽樣法
• getting people who are most conveniently available
• fast & low cost

 Purposive sampling 計畫抽樣法

• Judgment sampling
• Quota sampling

 Snowball sampling 滾雪球抽樣法

Characteristics of nonprobability
samples
 members of the population do not have a
known chance of being selected

 do not represent any known population

 results cannot be generalized beyond the

group being tested