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Basic Geophysics

FIVE DAY PRESENTATION

Vrms Velocity
0.0 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 0.0 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

Vint
Time

Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms

Vave

2.0 2.0

D. S. Macpherson
Basic Geophysics - Course Outline

A. The nature of the seismic image

B. Seismic data acquisition

C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface

D. Seismic velocities - defining reservoir structure

E. Data processing

F. Imaging by seismic migration

G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO

H. Seismic inversion for reservoir properties

I. 4D seismic surveys and reservoir monitoring


J. Gravity and magnetic surveys
A. The nature of the seismic image - Section Outline

Rays and waves - how does an elastic wave propagate

What is propagating in the earth and being recorded at the surface

The old concept of a stacked trace

The problem with stacking traces to form an image

What causes reflections

The seismic display in two, three, and four dimensions

Displays in both depth and time

A-1
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Time

Seismic display in time


A-2
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves

Animation link
Source of elastic waves
Depth

Reflected
energy

Transmitted
energy

Propagating wave front


(successive increments in time)
A-3
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves

Source and
receiver location
Depth

Reflected
Reflection energy
at normal incidence

Corresponding ray diagram


(always at right angles to the wave diagram)

A-4
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves

Source and
receiver location
Time

Recorded
reflection event

Seismic display in time

A-5
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves
Time

Seismic display in time

A-6
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves

Source of elastic waves


Depth

Reflected
energy

Transmitted
energy

Propagating wave front


(successive increments in time)
A-7
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves

Source and
receiver location

Reflected
Depth

energy
Reflection
at normal incidence

Corresponding ray diagram


(always at right angles to the wave diagram)

A-8
A. The nature of the seismic image - Rays and Waves

Source and
receiver location

Reflected
Depth

Time

energy
Display location
for the recorded event

Superimposing time and depth displays

A-9
A. The nature of the seismic image - What is propagating

Ground force

Downward
particle motion

Increased
pressure

Propagation of a compressional wave


A - 10
A. The nature of the seismic image - What is propagating

Ground force

compression
Reflected
Propagation of a compressional wave
A - 11
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace

Receivers Source

Reflected Propagating
ray wave front

Simplified marine configuration


(one source and four receivers)

A - 12
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace

Source
Direction of
survey

Source

Source

Source

A - 13
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace

Common
mid-point
1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Stacked trace
Time

Time for
the normal
incident ray
at zero offset
= To

A - 14
A. The nature of the seismic image - The old concept of a stacked trace

Common mid-point gathers

Increasing
shot to receiver
offset
Near Far Near Far
trace trace trace trace
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Stacked trace
Time

Time for
the normal
incident ray
Curve of at zero offset
“normal = To
moveout”

Moveout corrected
traces A - 15
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking

Common Moveout
mid-point Stacked
Common mid-point corrected
gather trace
traces

Moveout in the presence of dip

A - 16
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking

Un-migrated Migrated
stacked data image

Un-migrated Migrated
image surface image surface

Migrating the seismic image Kirchhoff link


on to the plane of the reflector

A - 17
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking

Common Moveout
mid-point Stacked
Common mid-point corrected
gather trace
S R traces

Trajectory of possible
reflection points

Moveout in the presence of dip


A - 18
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking

Common mid-point
S R

Trajectory of possible
reflection points

Where did the reflection actually come from?

A - 19
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking

Source Receiver
Location Location

Single Seismic Trace


Pre-stack Migrated
A - 20
A. The nature of the seismic image - The problem with stacking

Traces Migrated
in time traces
Common mid Common image Stacked
Common mid-point trace
point point

Image point
window
3D bin size

Image point gather


A - 21
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

compression
Reflected
compression
Incident

Reflecting
interface

A - 22
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Impedance = Velocity X Density

Layer 1 impedance
Reflected wave = Velocity(1) x Density(1)
Incident wave = Z1

Layer 2 impedance
= Velocity(2) x Density(2)
Transmitted wave
= Z2

A - 23
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Note: this is for zero angle

Reflection coefficient
Reflected wave
Reflected wavelet amplitude
Incident wave R=
Incident wavelet amplitude
Z2 - Z1
R=
Z2 + Z1

(V2 x D2) - (V1 x D1)


R=
(V2 x D2) + (V1 x D1)

Transmitted wave

A - 24
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Note: this is for zero angle

Reflected wave V1 = 6000’ / Sec


Incident wave D1 = 2.20 Sg

V2 = 7500’ / Sec
D2 = 2.42 Sg
Reflection coefficient
Transmitted wave (V2 x D2) - (V1 x D1)
R=
(V2 x D2) + (V1 x D1)

(7500 x 2.42) - (6000 x 2.20)


R=
(7500 x 2.42) + (6000 x 2.20)

R = .16 Note this is a ratio

A - 25
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Note: this is for zero angle


16%
100% Transmission coefficient
Reflected wave T=1-R
Incident wave
V1 = 6000’ / Sec
D1 = 2.20 Sg

V2 = 7500’ / Sec
D2 = 2.42 Sg

Transmitted wave
R = .16
84% T=1-R

T = .84

ie. 16% of the amplitude was reflected


and 84% was transmitted
A - 26
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Layered Impedance Reflection Animation link


earth Coefficients

A - 27
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Layered Impedance Reflection Wavelet Wavelet Recorded


earth Coefficients Superposition Trace

A - 28
A. The nature of the seismic image - What causes reflections

Seismic
Data

Landmark
Best Fit Synthetic Seismogram Geographix
A - 29
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

0.0 0.0

0.5
0.5
1.0

1.5 1.0

Depth (Kilometers)

Time (Seconds)
2.0
1.5
2.5
2.0
3.0

3.5 2.5

4.0
3.0
4.5

A - 30
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

12 trace intervals x 12.5 meters


= 150 meters or 492 feet

0.100 seconds x 10,000’/sec.


= 1000 feet (down and back)
= 500 feet vertical distance

0.100 seconds x 3,000 m/sec.


= 300 meters (down and back)
= 150 meters vertical distance

A - 31
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

A - 32
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

Dis
t an Exercise link
ce

n ce
sta
Di

Time
A - 33
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

3D data
example

Inline link
Crosslink link

Time Slice link

Time migrated color threshold


display of a 3D survey
A - 34
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

Time 1.640
Trace No. 4860 4900 4940 4980 5020 5060 5100 5140 Trace No.

Line No. Line No.

1400 1400

1440 1440

1480 1480

1520 1520

1560 1560

1600 1600

1640 1640

1680 1680

Time slice from a 3D survey


A - 35
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

Time (Sec.) Depth (Feet)


0 0
.5
1.0
5,000
1.5
2.0
2.5 10,000

3.0
3.5
15,000
4.0
A - 36
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

Depth Domain Displays


Shallow

Mid

Deep
Depth (meters)

A - 37
A. The nature of the seismic image - Displays in depth and time

Depth Domain Display

Parallel Geoscience A - 39
B. Seismic data acquisition - Section Outline

The marine configuration for a 3D survey

Arrays to attenuate noise

Bin gathering as a CMP assemblage of reflections

The land configuration for a 3D survey

Bin gathering for a land 3D survey

Costs of 2D and 3D survey

B-1
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

B-2
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

Air compressor
system

Air gun array

GPS receiver

Active recording streamer

Depth controller

B-3
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

Single air gun

Photo link
B-4
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

Depth controller
Streamer reel
B-5
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

Pressure sensitive
hydrophone Plastic Wrapped electrical wire
spacer and optical fiber

PVC cover Tow cable


Kerosene
cable fluid Marine streamer

A to D converter
B-6
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

Pressure sensitive hydrophone


B-7
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine configuration

Active recording
streamer

Gun arrays

Paravein tow section

Movie link
B-8
B. Seismic data acquisition - Arrays to attenuate noise

Single
source

Horizontally
propagating
noise

B-9
B. Seismic data acquisition - Arrays to attenuate noise

Air gun array

B - 10
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine bin gathering

Source array

Source array

Midpoints

Receiver arrays
25 X 25 meter bins

Midway points for multiple shot locations


B - 11
B. Seismic data acquisition - Marine bin gathering

Animation 1 Animation 2

25 X 25 meter bins

Midway points for multiple shot locations


B - 12
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

Recording truck

Vibroseis units

Geophone arrays

B - 13
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

Moving coil geophone components

Photo link 10 Meter String of Geophones

B - 14
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

Flexible two
wire cable

Suspension
Plastic
spring
casing
Suspended
coil
Metal
casing Strong
magnet

Ground
spike
Moving coil geophone
components

B - 15
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

2 cm.
“VectorSeis” sensor by I/O Inc. Sercel 3 Component Digital
MEMS Micro Electro Mechanical Geophone
System

B - 16
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

Movie Vibroseis unit


Photo courtesy Dawson Geophysical B - 17
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

A Vibroseis array

B - 18
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land bin gathering

Subsurface coverage from one source location B - 19


B. Seismic data acquisition - Land bin gathering

Subsurface coverage from three source locations B - 20


B. Seismic data acquisition - Land 3C recording

Three component geophone


B - 21
B. Seismic data acquisition - Land configuration

Costs of Seismic Data (Acquisition and Processing)

3D / for a 3 X 3 mile block in Millions of $


Land West Texas open area .32
Land coastal woods to wetlands .58
Land transitional zone - marsh .80
Jungle 2.00
Marine .25

Speculative data 25% of proprietary

B - 22
B. Seismic data acquisition - On bottom cable

Gimbal mounted 4C receiver in the OBC cable


B - 23
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping

Geoid Mapping Surface


(actual earth shape)

Spheroid
(mathematical approximation)

The old problem


We surveyed as though we were on the flat mapping surface, but we
were actually on the Geoid. We then mapped on the flat surface, chose
well locations on the map, and then had to locate the wells on the
earths surface. Then along came GPS.
The new problem
With GPS, we are given survey locations on the spheroid that we
project on to a flat mapping surface. We chose a well location on the
flat map, and then must locate the well on the earths surface. The
survey system for well location is based on the Spheroid and not the
Geoid.
B - 24
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping

6 degree UTM System

Pole Pole

Latitude lines

Equator

Central meridian Central meridian

0
6 Wedge of the earth Cylindrical approximation
B - 25
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping

6 degree UTM System

Pole Pole

Latitude lines

Equator

Central meridian Central meridian

6 Wedge of the earth Cylindrical approximation


B - 26
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping

6 degree UTM System

Longitude lines

Latitude lines
0
6 zone boundary
0
6 zone boundary

Equator Equator

Map origin
Central meridian

B - 27
B. Seismic data acquisition - Surveying and mapping

6 degree UTM System

X,Y location
Y is the distance in meters
north of the equator
X is the distance in meters
east of the central meridian
The central meridian is
Longitude lines given a “false easting” of
1,000,000 meters so that
the X never has negative
numbers
Latitude lines
0
6 zone boundary
0
6 zone boundary

Equator Equator

Map origin
Central meridian

B - 28
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Section Outline

Generating a wavelet at the source

Marine and land wavelets - minimum and zero phase

Wavelet interference

Vertical resolution and the thin bed response

The role of the wavelet in resolution

The tuning thickness

Sampling in time and distance (sample spacing and trace spacing)

The ugly story of data polarity

C-1
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Generating a wavelet

Land dynamite
Marine air gun

particle motion
Pressure or

Time

Land and marine “impulsive” sources


C-2
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase

Wavelet amplitude spectrum 4/12 - 32/48 wavelets

12 32
Amplitude

4 48
Frequency (Hz.) Time (Sec.)

Time origin
C-3
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase

Zero phase wavelet Minimum phase wavelet

C-4
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase

Proper wavelet processing

Zero phase

Mixed phase
Minimum phase

Improper wavelet processing

C-5
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase

Zero phase display


C-6
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Minimum and zero phase

Lithology Impedance Reflection Minimum Zero Mixed


coefficient phase phase phase

Low
velocity
density

High
velocity
density

C-7
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Zero phase
Lithology Impedance Reflection wavelets
coefficients

High
velocity
density

Low
velocity
density

High
velocity
density

Discreet reflectors from the top and bottom of a reservoir


C-8
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Example from a 3D survey


showing the limit of vertical resolution

C-9
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

0.0

Time (Sec.)
0.100

Reflection
amplitude
Wedge
Thickness
300 250 200 150 100 50

Classic tuning model


C - 10
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

0.0

Time (Sec.)
0.100

Reflection
amplitude
Wedge
Thickness (feet)
300 250 200 150 100 50

Classic tuning model C - 11


C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Limit of resolution
(tuning zone)

0.0

Time (Sec.)
0.100

Reflection
amplitude
Wedge
Thickness (feet)
300 250 200 150 100 50

Classic tuning model C - 12


C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Zero phase
Lithology Impedance Reflection wavelets
coefficients

High
velocity
density

Low
velocity
density
High
velocity
density

Discreet reflectors from the top and bottom of a reservoir


at the tuning thickness
C - 13
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Zero phase
wavelets
Tuning separation

in time = 1/2 of the wavelet period

in depth =
∆ T
X interval velocity
∆ T 2

Example:
If ∆ T = .020 Sec
and Vint = 8000’/Sec
the tuning thickness is 80 feet

Discreet reflectors from the top and bottom of a reservoir


at the tuning thickness

C - 14
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Model Based on Interpolated Logs


Wedge Model Landmark
Geographix

C - 15
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Model Based on Interpolated Logs


Wedge Model Landmark
Geographix

C - 16
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Vertical resolution

Model Based on Interpolated Logs


Wedge Model Landmark
Geographix

C - 17
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution

4/12-32/48
FC=22 Hz

20 40 60
Frequency (Hz)

FC=32 Hz

20 40 60
Frequency (Hz) -.100 -.050 .050 .100
0.0 Time (Sec.)

10/22-42/60
C - 18
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution

4/12 - 32/48 wavelet

Amplitude
Tuning Thickness

Wedge
Thickness 300 250 200 150 100 50

10/22 – 48/60 wavelet

Amplitude
Tuning Thickness

Wedge
Thickness 300 250 200 150 100 50

C - 19
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution

20/25-31/40
FC=28 Hz

20 40 60
Frequency (Hz)

FC=28 Hz

20 40 60
Frequency (Hz) -.100 -.050 .050 .100
0.0 Time (Sec.)

3/8-48/60
Link to wavelet animation C - 20
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Wavelets and resolution

1.0 4/12-32/48

28 Hz Ricker
.8 wavelet

.6

28 Hz Ricker
.4 wavelet

.2

-.100 -.050 .050 .100


0 0.0 Time (Sec.)

0 50 100
Frequency (Hz)
C - 21
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

∆ T Correctly sampled frequency

For any given frequency, each period must have no less


than three samples (two sample intervals of ∆ T)
For any given DT, the maximum frequency that it
can represent is called the Nyquest Frequency

FNYQ 1
=
2∆ T
For a sample interval of .002 seconds ( 2 milliseconds)
1
FNYQ = = 250 Hz.
2 x .002
C - 22
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

∆ T Correctly sampled frequency

∆ T

“Aliased” frequency

C - 23
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

20 Hz. sinusoid
.025 Sec.

Sample interval = .002 Sec. ( 2 milliseconds )


Coarsest possible sample interval
for 20 Hz.
1 1
∆T= = = .025 Sec.
2 Freq 2 x 20

C - 24
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Wave propagating to the surface

C - 25
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.

C - 26
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.

Cycles / Foot = Wavenumber


C - 27
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.

Cycles / Foot = Wavenumber


C - 28
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Spatial Aliasing
Spatial Nyquest Frequency

Cycles / Sec.
= Hz.

Cycles / Foot = Wavenumber


C - 29
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Un-migrated diffraction 4/12 – 32/48 wavelet


100’ trace spacing, 6000’/Sec.

Spatial Nyquest Frequency for


this wavelet
C - 30
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

Un-migrated diffraction 3/8 – 20/30 wavelet


100’ trace spacing, 6000’/Sec.

Spatial Nyquest Frequency for


this wavelet
C - 31
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

12 32
Amplitude

4 48
Frequency
Center frequency = 22 Hz

Rule of thumb
The maximum spatial sampling is given by the center frequency
and the average velocity to the source of the diffraction:

∆ S = Vave
4 X Fc
For the example above with a Vave of 7000’/Sec and an Fc of 22 Hz.
DS is 80 feet or 24 meters.
C - 32
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Sampling in two dimensions

4/12 – 32/48 Wavelet 20/25 – 31/40 Wavelet Data example


Courtesy of Veritas

Example
C - 33
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Data polarity

Pressure sensor
(hydrophone)

Positive
pressure

SEG standard “recording” polarity for a positive pressure wave


C - 34
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Data polarity

Marine air gun Marine hydrophone

Shot and receiver “ghosts” in the marine system

C - 35
C. Wavelets and reflections at an interface - Data polarity

Lithology Impedance Reflection SEG “display”


coefficient convention

Low
velocity
density

High
velocity
density

C - 36
D. Seismic velocities - Section Outline

Two velocity models and how they relate to the geology of a basin

Some definitions for the layer cake mode

The Dix equation and stacking velocity

Measuring velocities in the well

Conversion of seismic times to depth with measured velocities

Vertical seismic profiles

Velocities and overpressure

D-1
D. Seismic velocities - Two velocity models

Layer-cake velocities Compactional velocities


Geologic model
North Sea Gulf of Mexico

D-2
D. Seismic velocities - Compactional velocity models

Velocity Velocity
Linear with time model

Depth
Time
V(t) = V0 + At Vint
Vint

t = time variable
A = “acceleration” factor
Vave
Vave

D-3
D. Seismic velocities - Compactional velocity models

Velocity Velocity
Linear with depth model

Depth

Time
V(d) = V0 + Kd Vint
Vint

d = depth variable
K = “compaction” factor
Vave
Vave

D-4
D. Seismic velocities - Velocity definitions

Interval Two way Stacking Average


Model velocity Thickness travel time or migration velocity
velocity

Layer 1 Vint (1) Z (1)


Interface (1) T (1) Vrms (1) Vave (1)

Layer 2 Vint (2) Z (2)

Interface (2) T (2) Vrms (2) Vave (2)

Layer 3 Vint (3) Z (3)

Interface (3) T (3) Vrms (3) Vave (3)

Rock properties Seismically derived properties


D-5
D. Seismic velocities - Velocity definitions

Average velocity - used to convert seismic times to depth


i

Σ 2 Z (n)
n=1
Vave (i) = Travel distance = i
Travel time
Σ T (n)
n=1

RMS (root mean squared) velocity) - Stacking velocity or migration velocity

Σ 2 Z (n) Vint (n)


2 n=1
Vrms (i) = i

Σ 2
Z (n)
Vint (n)
n=1

D-6
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Interval velocity derived from Vrms - The Dix equation Key


2 2
Concept
2 Vrms (i) T (i) - Vrms (i-1) T (i-1)
Vint (i) =
T (i) - T (i-1)

RMS (root mean squared) velocity) - Stacking velocity or migration velocity

Σ 2 Vint (n) (T (n) -T (n-1) )


n=1
Vave (i) =
T (i)

Vave (i) = Calculated total travel distance


Two way travel time

D-7
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

SRO
Time =
Vint
Near Far Stacked
trace trace trace

Time
Vint

To
To
TT TT
2 Curve of
2 2 SRO “normal
TT = T0 + Vint moveout”

Moveout equation (single layer)


D-8
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

SRO
Time =
Vint
Near Far Stacked
trace trace trace

V1

Time
V2
V3
V4
V5
To
TT
2 Curve of
Key 2 2 SRO “normal
Concept TT = T0 + Vrms moveout”

Moveout equation (multiple layers)


D-9
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

V1
V2
V3
V4
V5

Vrms travel path

Migration velocity
D - 10
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Velocity
Migrated analysis
seismic image Vrms
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0

Time
1.0 1.0

2.0 2.0

D - 11
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Vrms
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0 5,100

0.185 5,450

0.460 5,850

0.680 6,050
Time

1.0
1.120 6,275

1.775 6,680

2.0

2.210 6,900

D - 12
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Ttw Vrms Vint Thickness Depth Vave


0.0 5,100 0 5,100
5,450 501
0.185 5,450 501 5,450
6,102 842
0.460 5,850 1,343 5,841
6,448 709
0.680 6,050 2,053 6,039

6,608 1,454

1.120 6,275 3,506 6,262

7,321 2,398

1.775 6,680 5,904 6,652

7,733 1,683

2.210 6,900 7,586 6,685

D - 13
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Velocity Ttw Vrms Vint Vave


5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0 5,100 5,100
5,450
0.185 5,450 5,450
6,102
0.460 5,850 5,841
6,448
Vint 0.680 6,050 6,039
Time

6,608
1.0
Vrms 1.120 6,275 6,262

7,321
Vave
1.775 6,680 6,652

2.0 7,733

2.210 6,900 6,685

D - 14
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Vrms Velocity
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0

Vint
Time

Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms

Vave

2.0 2.0

D - 15
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Velocity
Migrated analysis
seismic image Velocity
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0

Vint

Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms

Vave

2.0 2.0

D - 16
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Velocity
Migrated analysis
seismic image Depth (Ft)
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
0.0 0.0

Time
1.0 1.0

2.0 2.0

D - 17
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

D - 18
D. Seismic velocities - The Dix Equation and stacking velocity

Iso-velocity plot
Locations of velocity analysis
160 148 136 124 112 100

5,000

5,500

6,000

6,500

D - 19
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well

Migrated Well
seismic image bore
0.0

Seismic
reference
datum
Time

Depth
1.0

Downhole
geophone
(array)

2.0

Checkshot (velocity) survey


D - 20
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well

Mud pit
Depth

Seismic
reference
datum

Downhole
geophone
(array)

Checkshot (velocity) survey on land


D - 21
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well

Log One-
412 meters
Depth Two-
depth Meters way time Interval
below way time
(below KB) (corrected) velocity
SRD from SRD
0 0
1727 SRD
112 0.0649 0 0.0000 300 meters
2520
242 0.1165 130 0.1032
2596
455 0.1985 343 0.2673
2826
680 0.2781 568 0.4265
2989
815 0.3233 703 0.5169
3272
1080 0.4043 978 0.6788
3533
1261 0.4555 1149 0.7813
3523
1457 0.5111 1345 0.8926
3332
1600 0.5541 1588 0.9784
2830
1645 0.5700 11533 1.0102

Checkshot (velocity) survey on land


D - 22
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well

Interval velocity

Sonic
Linear log
two way
time scale
Non-linear
depth scale

Integrated
sonic log

Time-based sonic log

D - 23
D. Seismic velocities - Measuring velocities in the well

Interval velocity

Sonic
Linear log
two way
time scale
Non-linear
depth scale

Integrated
sonic log

Check shot
values Time-based sonic log

D - 24
D. Seismic velocities - Depth conversion

Velocity surveys Time depth data


Well A Well B Well C
Depth
0.0

Vave (i) = Depth (i)


Time (i)
Time

Time
Vave(1)

1.0
Vave(2)

Vave(3)

2.0

D - 25
D. Seismic velocities - Depth conversion

Two-way time (from 3D survey) Average velocity map (from velocity surveys)
Well C Well C

Well B Well B

Well A Well A

Well C

Two-way time X Vave Well B


Depth =
2
Well A

D - 26
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Pressure

Terzaghi relationship

Lithostatic EP = LP - HP
Pressure =
Depth Overburden
Pressure LP

Effective
Pressure

HP EP HP
Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir
Pressure

D - 27
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Pressure Rock Velocity


A A

Lithostatic
Normal
Depth

Depth
Pressure =
Compaction
Overburden
Trend
Pressure

Effective
Pressure Fracture
Fracture
Pressure
Pressure

Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir
Pressure

D - 28
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Pressure
To fracture the formation, the reservoir
(pore) pressure must overcome the
minimum component of stress
The fractures are orthogonal to this
stress component
Lithostatic
Pressure =
Depth Overburden Maximum
Pressure Stress

Effective
Pressure Fracture
Fracture
Pressure
Pressure
Minimum
Stress
Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir Intermediate
Pressure Stress
Fractures

D - 29
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Pressure Gradient of Pressure

Water
gradient
.4335
Ballpark rock
assumption
434 Psi
1.0
1000 Psi

Depth 1000’

867 Psi 2000 Psi

2000’

D - 30
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

PSI X 1000 PPG


10 15 10 15 20
0 5
0 0

. .

. .
LP
5 5
.
LP .
Depth Feet X 1000

. HP .
RP
10 . 10 .

HP
RP
.

15
. 15 .
D - 31
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

PSI X 1000 PPG


10 15 10 15 20
0 5
0 0

. .

. .
LP
5 5
.
LP .
Depth Feet X 1000

. FP HP .
RP FP
10 . 10 .

HP
RP EP EP
.

15
. 15 .
D - 32
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

HP Hydrostatic Pressure = Reservoir Pressure and Pore Pressure when the section is
normally pressured

RP Reservoir Pressure = Usually the Hydrostatic Pressure or the Pore Pressure unless
the section is over or under pressured

LP Lithologic Pressure = Overburden Pressure. This is the cumulative weight of the


sediments plus the pore filling material, calculated by integrating the density log

EP Effective Pressure = The difference between the Overburden Pressure and the
Reservoir pressure or Pore Pressure

FP Fracture Pressure = The Pore Pressure or Reservoir Pressure required to fracture


the surrounding rock

D - 33
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Pressure Rock Velocity


A A

Lithostatic
Normal
Depth

Depth
Pressure =
Compaction
Overburden
Trend
Pressure

Effective
Pressure Fracture
Fracture
Pressure
Pressure

Hydrostatic
Pressure =
Reservoir
Pressure

D - 34
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

GR TVD
A
0 api 200
Gamma
Ray
Normal
Resistivity Compaction
Trend

Acoustic 7000

8000

D - 35
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Vrms Velocity
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
0.0 0.0

Vint
Time

Time
1.0 1.0
Vrms

Vave
Top of
overpressure
2.0 2.0

D - 36
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

PSI X 1000 PPG


10 15 10 15 20
0 5
0 0

. .

. .

5
Mud Weight 5
Mud Weight
. .
Blowout Blowout
Depth Feet X 1000

. .
Overpressure Overpressure
10 . 10 .

15
. 15 .
D - 37
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Casing PPG
Program 10 15 20
0

.
. Mud Weight

5
FP
Depth Feet X 1000

Overpressure
10 .

15 .
D - 38
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Vint

Vave

Vrms

DIX Program
Showing the Effect of Overpressure
D - 39
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Velocity Analysis (Stacking + Inversion )


D - 40
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Pore Pressure Volume


D - 41
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Interpreted Seismic Line

“Horizon Keyed” Pressure Prediction


The Future of Pore Pressure Prediction
Huffman, Conoco TLE Feb, 2002
D - 42
D. Seismic velocities - Overpressure and Seismic Velocities

Example
Reservoir Pressure

Overburden

Brine Density = 1.05 Gas Density = .25 Fracture


in the shales and the water in the reservoir
portion of the reservoir

The “Gas Kick”

∆ Pressure = ∆ Density X ∆ Height X .4335


= .8 X 200 X .4335
= 69 Psi

D - 43
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

One -way time


Horizon 1

Ho
riz
on
Horizon 2 1

VSP geometry

Raw VSP
Ho
ri z
on
2

D - 44
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

ks

One -way time


c
pi

Two -way time


al
ir v
t ar
c
ire
D
Horizon 1

Horizon 2

D - 45
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

Two -way time


Corridor
Stack

D - 46
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

g
n-goin
Dow

Up-g
oing

Uncorrected VSP
D - 47
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

Inversion
in a
Nutshell

D - 48
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

Offset VSP at 6000 feet

D - 49
D. Seismic velocities - Vertical seismic profiles

Baker
Hughes
3D VSP
D - 50

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