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Outlines
Linearity Property
Superposition
Source transformation
Thevenin’s theorem
Norton’s theorem
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Linearity Property
Learn theorems/methods for analysing electric circuits.
i.e. superposition, source transformation, thevenin and norton
– are applicable to linear circuits.
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Linearity Property
Additivity property:
Requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately.
i.e. v1 i1 R and v 2 i2 R
then applying i i1 i2
gives v i1 i2 R i1 R i2 R v1 v2
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Example 1
For the circuit shown, find v0 when is=15 A and is=30 A.
Answers:
20V and 40V
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Example 2
Assume that V0 =1 V and use the linearity to calculate the
actual value of V0 in the circuit shown.
Answer:
12 V
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Superposition
Another method for analysing circuits.
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Steps to Apply Superposition
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Turn off VOLTAGE source by replacing the element with a SHORT
circuit.
Turn off CURRENT source by replacing the element with a OPEN
circuit.
2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source.
3. Repeat Step 1 and Step 2 for each of the other independent
sources.
4. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
Note: Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled
by circuit variables.
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Example 3
Find v0 using superposition.
Answer:
6V
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Example 4
Find vx using superposition.
Answer:
25V
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Example 5
Find I using superposition.
Answer:
750mA
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Source Transformation
Another method for simplifying electric circuits.
What is it?
The process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R
with a current source Is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
Note:
The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal
of the voltage source.
Source transformation is not possible when R=0 or R=infinity.
Answer:
1.78A
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Example 7
Find ix using source transformation.
Answer:
7.059mA
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Example 8
Find vx using source transformation.
Answer:
3.65V
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Thevenin’s Theorem
The theorem states that:
A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor
RTh. VTh is the open circuit voltage at the terminals whereas RTh is the
input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
To determine VTh, set terminals a-b to open circuit.
To determine RTh, turn off all independent sources.
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Thevenin’s Theorem
Two cases to consider for RTh:
Case 1: No dependent sources in the network.
Turn of all independent sources.
RTh is the input resistance looking between terminal a-b.
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Example 9
Determine Thevenin’s equivalent.
Answer:
VTh=9V
RTh=3Ω
I=2.25A
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Thevenin’s Theorem
Case 2: A network with dependent sources.
Turn off all INdependent sources.
Apply a voltage source v0 at terminals a-b and determine the resulting
current i0. Then RTh= v0 / i0.
Alternatively, insert a current i0 and determine v0.
May assume any values of v0 and i0 (i.e. v0 =1V or i0=1A).
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Example 10
Determine Thevenin’s equivalent.
Answer:
VTh=5.333V
RTh=444.4mΩ
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Example 11
Determine Thevenin’s equivalent.
Answer:
VTh=0V
RTh=-7.5Ω
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Thevenin’s Theorem
A linear circuit with a variable load can be replaced by
the Thevenin equivalent.
VTh
IL
RTh RL
RL
VL RL I L VTh
RTh RL
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Norton’s Theorem
The theorem states that:
A linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN
IN is the short circuit current through the terminals.
RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
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Norton’s Theorem
To determine IN, set the terminal a-b to short circuit. Thus:
IN=isc
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Example 12
Determine Norton’s equivalent.
Answer:
IN=4.5A
RN=3Ω
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Example 13
Determine Norton’s equivalent.
Answer:
IN=10A
RN=1Ω
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Maximum Power Transfer
Thevenin’s equivalent is useful in finding the maximum
power in a linear circuit.
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VTh
P i RL
2
RL
RTh RL
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Maximum Power Transfer
For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed.
The power delivered can be varied by varying RL.
Power is maximum when RL = RTh.
when RL RTh
2
VTh
p max RTh
RTh RTh
2
V
p max Th
4 RTh
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Example 14
The variable resistor R is adjusted until it absorbs the
maximum power from the circuit below.
Calculate the value of R for maximum power.
Determine the maximum power absorbed by R.
Answer:
R=25Ω
P=7.84W
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