Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

Haipan Salam
 Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Process Characterist cs i
Roll Form ng
i Long parts wi ht cons ant t complex cross-sections; good surface fi nish; high
production rates ;high tool ng i costs.
Stretch form ng
i Large part swith shal ow l contours; sui able t or
f ow-quant
l iy tproduct on;
i high
labor costs; tool ng i and equipment costs depend on part si ze.
Drawing Shal ow
l or deep parts wi ht relat vely i si mple shapes; high product on i rates;
high ool
t ngi and equ pmenti cost s.
Stam ping Includes a va r ety i of operat ons,i such as punching, blank ng, i emboss ng, i
bending, f anging,
l and coining; s i m ple or compl ex shapes formed at h gh i
production rates ;tool ng i and equipment costs an c be high, but labor cost is
low.
Rubber form ng
i Drawing and emboss ng i of s mpi el or complex shapes; sheet surface
protected by rubber membranes; fl exibi ltyi fooperat on; i low tool ng i costs.
Spinning Sma ll or large axi sym metri cparts ;good surface fini sh; low tool ng i costs, but
labor costs an c be high unless operat ons i are automated.
Superplast ci Comp ex l shapes, fi ne detail and c ose l olerances;
t form ngi im t es are long,
form ng
i hence production rates are low; parts not sui able t or
f high-temperature use.
Peen form ng
i Shal ow
l contours on large sheets; f exi l bil iytof operat on; i equipment cos st
can be high; process i sal so used for straightening parts.
Explos ve
i form ng
i Very large sheets with elati r vely complex shapes, al hough t usual l y
ax symmetri
i c; ow l tool ngi costs, but high labor costs ; uitable s for low-
quanti yt production; long cycle tmes. i
Magneti c-pul se Shal ow
l ormf ng,
i bulging, and embossing operat ons i on relati vely ow-
l
form ng
i strength sheets; most sui able t or
f tubular shapes; high production rates;
requires spec al i tool ng.
i

• TABLE 7.1 General characteristics of sheet-metal forming proceses.

Localized Necking in Sheet Metal
• FIGURE 7.1 (a) Localized
necking in a sheet
specimen under tension.
(b) Determination of the
angle of neck from the
Mohr’s circle for strain.
(c) Schematic illustration
for diffuse and localized
necking. (d) Localized
necking in an aluminum
strip stretched in
tension. Note the double
neck.
 Yield Point Elongation

• FIGURE 7.2 (a) Yield point elongation and Lueder’s bands in tension testing. (b) Lueder’s
bands in annealed low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for
household products. Source: (b) Reprinted with permission from Caterpillar, Inc.
Stress-Corrosion Cracking

• FIGURE 7.3 Stress-corrosion

cracking in a deep-drawn brass
part for a light-fixture. The cracks
developed over a period of time.
Brass and austenitic (300 series)
stainless steels are among metals
that are susceptible to stress-
corrosion cracking.
 Shearing

• FIGURE 7.4 Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a

punch and die. This process with a punch and die. This process is a
common method of producing various openings in sheet metals.
Characteristi
cs of Hole
and Slug
• FIGURE 7.5
Characteristic features of
(a) a punched hole and
(b) the punched slug.
Note that the slug has
been sealed down as
compared with the hole.
 Shearing

• FIGURE 7.6 (a) Effect of clearance c between the punch and die on the deformation zone in
shearing. As clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die, rather than being
sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b)
Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm-thick (0.25-in.-thick) AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the
sheared region. Source: After H. P. Weaver and K. J. Weinmann.

FIGURE 7.7 Typical punch-penetration curve in

shearing. The area under the curve is the work done in
shearing. The shape of the curve depends on process
parameters and material properties.
 Punching, Blanking and Shearing
Operations
• FIGURE 7.8 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b)
Examples of various shearing operations on sheet metal.
 Fine Blanking

• FIGURE 7.9 (a) Comparison of sheared edges by conventional (left)

and fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of the
setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool U.S. Operations.
 Sitting and Shaving Operations

• FIGURE 7.10 Sitting with rotary FIGURE 7.11 Schematic illustrations of

knives. This process is similar to shaving on a sheared edge. (a) Shaving a
opening cans. sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving,
combined in one stroke.
Shear Angles For Punches and Dies
• FIGURE 7.12 Examples of the use of shear
angles on punches and dies.
 Progressive Dies

• FIGURE 7.13 (a) Schematic illustration of the making of a washer in a progressive die. (b)
Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is
attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
 Tailor-Welded
Blanks

• FIGURE 7.14 (a) Production

of an outer side panel of a
car body by laser welding
and stamping. (b) Examples
of laser welded and stamped
automotive body
components. Source: After
M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
 Bending

• FIGURE 7.15 (a) Bending terminology. The bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the
bend. Note that the length of the bend is the width of the sheet. Also note that the bend angle and
the bend radius (sharpness of the bend) are two different variables. (b) Relationship between the
ratio of bend radius to sheet thickness and tensile reduction of area for various materials. Note that
sheet metal with a reduction of area of about 50% can be bent and flattened over itself without
crackling. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yang.
 Minimum Bend Radii
• TABLE 7.2 Minimum bend radii for various
materials at room temperature.
MATERIAL MATERIAL CONDITION
SOFT HARD
Aluminum alloys 0 6T
Beryllium copper 0 4T
Brass, low-leaded 0 2T
Magnesium 5T 13T
Steels
austenitic stainless 0.5T 6T
low-carbon, low-alloy, and HSLA 0.5T 4T
Titanium 0.7T 3T
Titanium alloys 2.6T 4T
 Length of Bend
And Edge
Condition/Ratio
of Bend Radius

• FIGURE 7.16 The effect of length of bend and edge condition on the ratio of
bend radius to thickness of 7075-T aluminum. Source: After G. Sachs and G.
Espey.
The Effect of Elongated Inclusions
• FIGURE 7.17 (a) and (b) The
effect of elongated inclusions
(stringers) on cracking as a
function of the direction of
bending with respect to the
original rolling direction of the
sheet. This example shows the
importance of the direction of
cutting from large sheets in
workpieces that are
subsequently bent to make a
product. (c) Cracks on the outer
radius of an aluminum strip
bent to an angle of 90˚.
Springback in Bending
• FIGURE 7.18 Terminology for springback
in bending. Springback is caused by the
elastic recovery of the material upon
unloading. In this example, the material
tends to recover toward its originally flat
shape. However, there are situations
where the material bends farther upon
unloading (negative springback), as shown
in Fig. 7.20.

FIGURE 7.19 Springback factor K, for various

materials: (a) 2024-0 and 7075-0 aluminum; (b)
austenitic stainless steels; (c) 2024-T aluminum; (d)
1/4- hard austenitic stainless steels; (e) 1/2-hard to
full-hard austenitic stainless steels. Source: After G.
Sachs.
 Negative Springback

• FIGURE 7.20 Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire in a V-die. This type
of bending can lead to negative springback, which does not occur in air bending (shown in
Fig. 7.26a). Source: After K. S. Turke and S. Kalpakjian.
 Methods of Reducing or Eliminating
Springback

• FIGURE 7.21 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in

bending operations. Source: V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.
Common Die-Bending Operations

• FIGURE 7.22 Common die-bending operations, showing the die-opening

dimension W used in calculating bending forces. [See Eq,(7.11).]
 Bending Operations In a Press Brake
• FIGURE 7.23 Schematic illustration of various
bending operations in a press brake.
 Various Bending Operations

• FIGURE 7.24 Examples of various bending

operations.
 Bead Forming
• FIGURE 7.25 (a) Bead forming with a single
die. (b) Bead forming with two dies in a press
brake.
Flanging Operations
• FIGURE 7.26 Various
flanging operations. (a)
Flanges on flat sheet. (b)
Dimpling. (c) Piercing sheet
metal to form a flange. in
this operation, a hole does
not have to be prepunched
before the punch descends.
Note, however, the rough
edges along the
circumference of the flange.
(d) Flanging of a tube. Note
the thinning of the edges of
the flange.
Roll-Forming Process
• FIGURE 7.27 The
roll-forming process.

FIGURE 7.28 Stages in roll forming of a

sheet-metal door frame. In Stage 6, the rolls
may be shaped as in A or B. Source: G. Oehler.
 Bending of Tubes

• FIGURE 7.29 Methods of bending tubes. Using internal mandrels, or filling tubes with particulate
materials such as sand, is often necessary to prevent collapsing of the tubes during bending. Solid rods
and structural shapes are also bent by these techniques.
 Tube Forming

• FIGURE 7.30 A method of forming a tube with sharp angles, using axial compressive forces.
Compressive stresses are beneficial in forming operations because they delay fracture. Note
that the tube is supported internally with rubber or fluid to avoid collapsing during forming.
Source: After J. L. Remmerswaal and A. Verkaik.
 Stretch-Forming Process

• FIGURE 7.31 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum

skins for aircraft can be made by this process. Source: Cyril Bath Co.
 Bulging Of A Tubular Part

• FIGURE 7.32 (a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for
plumbing by expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to produce a “T.” Source: J. A.
Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2d. ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1987. Reproduced by permission of
the McGraw-Hill Companies. (c) Manufacturing of Bellows.
 Forming with a Flexible Pad

• FIGURE 7.33 Examples of bending and embossing sheet metal with a metal
punch and a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane
Products Corporation.
 Hydroform Process

• FIGURE 7.34 The hydroform, or fluid-forming, process. Note that, unlike in the ordinary
deep-drawing process, the dome pressure forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup
travels with the punch, and thus deep drawability is improved.
 Tube-Hydroforming Process

• FIGURE 7.35 (a) Schematic illustration of the tube-hydroforming process. (b) Example of
tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive exhaust and structural components, bicycle frames, and
hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are produced through tube hydroforming. Source: Schuler
GmBH.
 Spinning Processes

• FIGURE 7.36 Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a) conventional spinning and (b)
shear spinning. Note that in shear spinning, the diameter of the spun part, unlike in
conventional spinning, is the same as that of the blank. The quantity f is the feed (in mm/rev
or in./rev).
 Shapes in Spinning Processes

• FIGURE 7.37 Typical shapes produced by the conventional-spinning process. Circular marks
on the external surfaces of components usually indicate that the parts have been made by
spinning. Examples include aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors.
 Spinnability
• FIGURE 7.38 Schematic illustration
of a shear-spinnability test. As the
roller advances, the part thickness is
reduced. The reduction in thickness
at fracture is called the maximum
spinning reduction per pass. Source:
After R. L. Kegg.

FIGURE 7.39 Experimental data showing the

relationship between maximum spinning reduction
per pass and the tensile reduction of area of the
original material. Note that once a material has
about 50% reduction of area in a tension test, any
further increase in the ductility of the original
material does not improve the material’s
spinnability. Source: S. Kalpakjian.
 Internal And External Tube Spinning
• FIGURE 7.40 Examples of external and internal tube
spinning and the variables involved.
Tube And Shear Spinning of Compressor Shaft

• FIGURE 7.41 Stages in tube

and shear spinning of a
compressor shaft for the jet
engine of a supersonic
Concorde aircraft. Economic
analysis indicated that the
best method of
manufacturing this part was
to spin a preformed (forged
and machined) tubular blank.
 Explosive Forming Process
• FIGURE 7.42 Schematic illustration of the
explosive-forming process. Although explosives
are generally used for destructive purposes,
their energy can be controlled and employed in
forming large parts that would otherwise be
difficult or expensive to produce by other
methods.
FIGURE 7.43 Influence of the standoff
distance and type of energy-transmitting
medium on the peak pressure obtained
using 1.8 kg (4 lb) of TNT. To be
effective, the pressure-transmitting
medium should have high density and
low compressibility. In practice, water is
a commonly used medium.
 Explosive Tube Bulging and
Electrohydraulic Forming
• FIGURE 7.44 Schematic illustration of the confined method
of explosive bulging of tubes. Thin-walled tubes of
nonferrous metals can be formed to close tolerances by this
process.

FIGURE 7.45 Schematic

illustration of the
electrohydraulic-forming
process.
 Magnetic-Pulse-Forming Process

• FIGURE 7.46 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse-forming

process. The part is formed without physical contact without physical contact
with any object
Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic
Forming
• FIGURE 7.47 Two
types of structures
made by diffusion
bonding and
superplastic forming
of sheet metal. Such
structures have a
high stiffness-to-
weight ratio. Source:
Rock-well
International Corp.
 Peen-Forming

• FIGURE 7.48 Peen-forming machine to form a large sheet-metal part,

such as an aircraft-skin panel. The sheet is stationary, and the
machine traverses it. Source: Metal Improvement Company.
 Methods of Making Honeycomb
Materials

• FIGURE 7.49 Methods of making honeycomb materials: (a) expansion

process and (b) corrugation process. Source: Materials Engineering. Reprinted
with permission. (c) Making a honeycomb sandwich.
 Introduction
Basic Principles of Drawing
Drawing is a sheet metal forming operation used
to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other
complex-curved, hollow-shaped parts. It is
performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over
a die cavity and then pushing the sheet into the
opening with a punch. The blank is held down
flat against the die by a blankholder.

46
 Mechanics of Drawing
A blank of diameter Db is drawn into the die by means of a punch
of diameter Dp. The punch and die have corner radii Rp and Rd,
respectively. The sides of the die and punch are separated by a
clearance, c, which is about 10% greater than the sheet
thickness. The punch applies a downward force, F, to deform the
metal while the downward holding force, Fh, is applied by the
blankholder.

47
 Mechanics of Drawing
As the punch proceeds towards its
final position, the workpiece
experiences a complex sequence of
stresses and strains as it is formed
into its final shape.

In step 1, the blankholder force, Fh,

is applied and the punch begins to
move towards the sheet material.

In step 2, the sheet material is

subjected to a bending operation.
The sheet is bent over the corner of
the punch and the corner of the die.

In step 2, as the punch continues

moving down, a straightening action
occurs in the metal that was
previously bent over the die radius. 48
 Mechanics of Drawing
In step 3, as the punch continues
moving down, a straightening action
occurs in the metal that was previously
bent over the die radius. Metal from
the outside edge of the blank is drawn
into the die opening to form the
cylinder wall.

In step 4, friction between the sheet

material and surfaces of the
blankholder and die must be overcome
in order for the material to be drawn.
Compression is also occurring at the
outer edge of the blank. As the metal is
being drawn in toward the center, the
outer perimeter becomes smaller. The
volume of metal remains constant,
however, and thus the metal is
squeezed and becomes thicker in the
flange area. 49
 Mechanics of Drawing
The downward motion of the
punch results in a continuation
of the metal flow caused by
drawing and compression. Some
thinning at the cylinder walls
occurs as well. Step 5 shows the
completed drawing process.

50
 Mechanics of Drawing
The next slide illustrates the deep drawing process. However, in
this situation the punch (gray in color) is stationary and the blank
being deformed is not shown.

The animation clearly shows how the top die (blue) lowers
towards the binder plate (red). The sheet rests on the plate and
once the top die makes contact with the sheet, a cup is formed
around the stationary punch. The cushion pins (green rods)
transmit the blankholder force acting on the binder plate to the
hydraulic piston (cushion) which is located below the press table.

51
 Mechanics of Drawing
Click figure for animation

Upper Die

Punch

Binder plate

Cushion Pins 52
 Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The drawing ratio, DR, gives an indication of the severity of the
drawing operation: the higher the ratio, the greater the severity.
The drawing ratio is defined as:
Db
DR 
Dp

Where, Db = blank diameter and Dp = punch diameter. This value

is dependant upon punch and die corner radii, friction
conditions, draw depth, and material properties of the sheet
metal.

53
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The drawing force required to perform a drawing operation can
be roughly estimated by the following formula:

 Db 
F  D p t TS   0.7 
D 
 p 

Where
F = Drawing force
t = Original blank thickness
TS = Tensile strength
Db = Blank diameter
Dp = Punch diameter
54
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The blankholder force required for a drawing operation to
prevent defects is approximated by the following formula:


Fh  0.015Y Db2  D p  2.2t  2Rd 
2


Where
Fh = Blankholder force
Y = Yield strength
Db = Blank diameter
Dp = Punch diameter
Rd = Die corner radius
55
 Defects in Drawing
A number of defects in drawing can occur, which include:
(a) Wrinkling in the flange occurs due to compressive buckling because of a small blank
holder force.
(b) Wrinkling in the wall takes place when a wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup.
(c) Tearing occurs because of high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the
metal in the cup wall. Tearing can also occur in a drawing process if the die has a sharp
corner radius.
(d) Earring occurs when the material is anisotropic, i.e. has varying properties in different
directions.
(e) Surface scratches can be seen on the drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or
if the lubrication of the process is poor.

56
 Objectives
This lab has the following objectives:
• Become familiarized with the basic processes
used in sheet metal forming.
• Analyze a cup drawing operation and attempt
to select the best process parameters.

57
 Sheet Metal Forming – Cup Drawing

• Test Materials and Equipment

– Robinson (Open Back Inclinable- OBI) press
• Model A3
• 25-ton capacity
• Safety Equipment and Instructions
– Wear safety glasses.
– Conduct the test as directed by the instructor.
– Do not use hands to put or remove specimens on
the die – use the supplied tongs.
– Turn off the OBI press whenever you need to adjust
its setting. 58
 Sheet Metal Forming – Cup Drawing
Procedure:
• Obtain specimens to be
tested and record the
material data onto your
data sheet.
• Choose one sample and
place it in the tooling
using the tongs.
• For the first specimen, set
the air pressure for the
blankholder cylinders to
approximately 30 psi.
• Step on the foot pedal to
cycle the press one time.

59
 Sheet Metal Forming – Cup Drawing

Procedure (continued):
• If the part does not fall out of the bottom on its own, remove it
using the tongs or power down the press and blankholder before
attempting to remove the part. Be sure the flywheel has
completely stopped before attempting to retrieve the part!
• Inspect the formed part and record any observed defects. If the
part is not ideal, decide what process parameters you might adjust
to improve the part quality. You may adjust the blankholder force
or use a lubricant.
• Select another specimen of the same material and try your new
process parameters. Again, record any defects and speculate
appropriate adjustments to the process parameters.
• Adjust the parameters again and form your third specimen. Inspect
the material and record any observed defects.
• Repeat steps 4-9 for the remaining materials.

60
 Sheet Metal Forming – Cup Drawing Video

The cup drawing video on the next slide shows

the following:
• Inserting and centering the sheet material into
the die
• Powering up the machine
• Adjusting and initializing the blank holder
force/pressure
• Operating the press to create the deep-drawn
cup
61
 Deep-drawing Process

• FIGURE 7.50 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process. This procedure is the first step in the basic process by which aluminum
beverage cans are produced today. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep drawing
of a cylindrical cup. Only the punch force in this illustration is a dependent variable; all others are independent variables, including the
blankholder force.
 Deformation in Flange and
Wall in Deep Drawing
• FIGURE 7.51 Deformation of elements in (a)
the flange and (b) the cup wall in deep
drawing of a cylindrical cup.
 Drawing Operations

• FIGURE 7.52 Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The
bead prevents the sheet metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of
wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing. Source: After W. F. Hosford and R.
M. Caddell.
 Draw Bead

• FIGURE 7.53 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during drawing of a
box-shaped part, using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of
circular grids in drawing. (See Section 7.13.) Source: After S. Keeler.
Ironing Process • FIGURE 7.54 Schematic illustration of the ironing process. Note
that the cup wall is thinner than its bottom. All beverage cans
without seams (known as two-piece cans) are ironed, generally in
three steps, after being deep drawn into a cup. (Cans with separate
tops and bottoms are known as three-piece cans.)

Normal Anisotropy

FIGURE 7.55 Definition of the normal anisotropy

ratio, R, in terms of width and thickness strains in a
tensile-test specimen cut from a rolled sheet. Note
that the specimen can be cut in different directions
with respect to the length, or rolling direction, of
the sheet.
 Average Normal Anisotropy
Z nc
i al oys
l 0.4-0.6
Hot-rol ed
l steel 0.8-1.0
Cold-roll ed r mmed
i steel 1.0-1.4
Cold-roll ed alumi num-ki ledl stee l 1.4-1.8
A uminum
l all oys 0.6-0.8
Copper and brass 0.6-0.9
T tanium
i all oys () 3.0-5.0
Stai nless steels 0.9-1.2
High-strength l ow-alloy steels 0.9-1.2

• TABLE 7.3 Typical range of the average normal

anisotropy ratio, R, for various sheet metals.
 Anisotropy

FIGURE 7.57 Relationship between the

• FIGURE 7.56 Effect of grain size on average normal anisotropy, R, and the average
the average normal anisotropy for modulus of elasticity, E, for steel sheet. Source:
various low-carbon steels. Source: After P. R. Mould and T. R. Johnson, Jr.
After D. J. Blickwede.
 Effect of Average Normal Anisotropy

• FIGURE 7.58 Effect of average normal

anisotropy, R, on limiting drawing ratio
(LDR) for a variety of sheet metals. Zinc has
a high c/a ratio (see Figure 3.2c), whereas FIGURE 7.59 Earing in a drawn steel cup,
titanium has a low ratio. Source: After M. caused by the planar anisotropy of the sheet
Arkinson.
metal.
 Deep Drawing
• FIGURE 7.60 Schematic illustration of the
variation of punch force with stroke in deep
drawing. Note that ironing does not begin until
after the punch has traveled a certain distance
and the cup is formed partially. Arrows indicate
the beginning or ironing.

FIGURE 7.61 Effect of die and punch

corner radii in deep drawing on
fracture of a cylindrical cup. (a) Die
corner radius too small. The die corner
radius should generally be 5 to 10
times the sheet thickness. (b) Punch
corner radius too small. Because
friction between the cup and the punch
aids in the drawing operation,
excessive lubrication of the punch is
detrimental to drawability.
Redrawing Operations
• FIGURE 7.62
Reducing the
diameter of drawn
cups by redrawing
operations: (a)
conventional
redrawing and (b)
reverse redrawing.
Small-diameter deep
containers undergo
many drawing and
redrawing
operations.
 Tractrix Die Profile

• FIGURE 7.63 Deep drawing without a blankholder, using a tractrix die

profile. The tractrix is a special curve, the construction for which can
be found in texts on analytical geometry or in handbooks.
 Punch-Stretch Test

• FIGURE 7.64 (a) Schematic illustration of the punch-stretch test on sheet specimens with
different widths, clamped at the edges. The narrower the specimen, the more uniaxial is the
stretching. (b) A large square specimen stretches biaxially under the hemispherical punch.
(See also Fig. 7.65.)
 Bulge Test Results

• FIGURE 7.65 Bulge tests results on steel sheets of various widths. The first specimen
(farthest left) stretched farther before cracking than the last specimen. From left to right, the
state of stress changes from uniaxial to biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of R. W.
Thompson, Inland Steel Research Laboratories.
 Forming-Limit
Diagram

• FIGURE 7.66 (a) Forming-limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet metals. The major strain is always positive. The region above the curves is the failure
zone; hence, the state of strain in forming must be such that it falls below the curve for a particular material; R is the normal anisotropy. (b) Note
the definition of positive and negative minor strains. If the area of the deformed circle is larger than the area of the original circle, the sheet is
thinner than the original, because the volume remains constant during plastic deformation. Source: After S. S. Hecker and A. K. Ghosh.
 Strains In Sheet-Metal Forming

• FIGURE 7.67 An example of the use of grid marks (circular and square) to determine the
magnitude and direction of surface strains in sheet-metal forming. Note that the crack (tear)
is generally perpendicular to the major (positive) strain. Source: After S. P. Keeler.
Major and Minor Strains In a Vehicle

• FIGURE 7.68 Major

and minor strains in
various regions of an
automobile body.
 Efficient Nesting of Blanks

• FIGURE 7.69 Efficient nesting of parts for optimum material

utilization in blanking. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
 Tearing and Buckling Control

• FIGURE 7.70 Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a

right-angle bend. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Notches Used To Avoid Wrinkling

• FIGURE 7.71 Application of notches to avoid tearing and wrinkling in right-

angle bending operations. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Stress Concentrations Near Bends

• FIGURE 7.72 Stress concentrations near bends. (a) Use of a crescent

or ear for a hole near a bend. (b) Reduction of the severity of a tab in
a flange. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
 Scoring For Sharper Inner Radius
Bending

• FIGURE 7.73 Application of scoring of embossing to obtain a sharp

inner radius in bending. Unless properly designed, these features can
lead to fracture. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
 Cost Comparison

• FIGURE 7.74 Cost comparison for manufacturing a round sheet-metal

container by conventional spinning and deep drawing. Note that for
small quantities, spinning is more economical.
 Top of Aluminum Can
• FIGURE 7.75 The top of an aluminum
beverage container.
 Metal-Forming
Process for Food
and Beverage
Containers
• FIGURE 7.76 The metal-forming process
used to manufacture two-piece beverage
cans.
Aluminum Two-Piece Beverage Cans

• FIGURE 7.77 Aluminum two-piece beverage cans. Note the fine

surface finish. Source: Courtesy of J. E. Wang, Texas A&M Univerity.