MACROMOLECULES

• All living things are made up of four classes

of large biological molecules: carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
• Macromolecules are large molecules
composed of thousands of covalently
connected atoms
• Molecular structure and function are
inseparable
 Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
• A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many
similar building blocks
• These small building-block molecules are called
monomers
• Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules
are polymers
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids
 The Synthesis and Breakdown of
Polymers
• A dehydration reaction occurs when two
monomers bond together through the loss of
a water molecule
• Polymers are disassembled to monomers by
hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the
reverse of the dehydration reaction
 Carbohydrates

• Are organic compounds consisting of carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen where the proportion of
hydrogen atoms to oxygen is two to one
• These compounds are the chief energy
sources in all organisms
 Roles in the body
• It serves as the backbone of other molecules
• It serves as stored energy (starch, cellulose
and glycogen)
• It is the most common source of energy in the
body
• It combines with proteins (glycoproteins and
proteoglycans) to form structural components
of living cells
 Classification
1.monosaccharides-simple sugars that consist of
only one sugar molecule
2. disaccharides- composed of 2
monosaccharide molecules
3. polysaccharides- a complex form of
carbohydrates that consist of 3 or more
monosaccharide molecules
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Are the building blocks of
more complex forms of sugars
• Most common are glucose,
galactose and fructose which
are isomers
• Isomers are 2 or more
substances whose molecules
have the same atoms but in
different arrangements
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Glucose-most common
monosaccharide (C6H12O6)
• It is the most important sugar
for the cells of the brain, liver,
pancreas and pituitary and
adrenal glands in both
vertebrates and invertebrates
• An instant source of energy
because it easily dissolves in
water
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Galactose- milk sugar. Has the
same atomic composition as
glucose but with a different
structure
• Fructose- or corn sugar is the
sweetest sugar
-found in fruits such as atis, melon
and ripe mangoes
 DISACCHARIDES
• 2 monosaccharides molecules bond together
chemically
• Combination of 2 monosaccharide molecules
leads to removal of water molecule
• Sucrose- is a disaccharide formed from the
chemical combination of glucose and fructose
-too big to enter in the living cell
 DISACCHARIDES
• Lactose-is formed from the combination of
glucose and galactose
• Maltose- or malt sugar is the raw material
used to make beer
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides can still bond to form long
chains or branches (multiple sugars)
• Common examples are starch, glycogen,
cellulose and chitin
• STARCH- is the stored carbohydrate in plants.
It is made up of several units. Commonly
found in potato tubers, carrots, corn and some
other roots and stem
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• GLYCOGEN- is the stored carbohydrates found
in animals
• CELLULOSE- is a very common polysaccharide.
It is insoluble carbohydrate abundant in the
tough outer wall of plant cells
Its functions include support and protection
Does not serve as food material but provides
roughage
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• CHITIN- is the second most abundant organic
compound in nature after cellulose.
• Provides support and rigidity to the cell wall of
fungi
Good Carbohydrates: (Low
Glycemic Carbs)
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Beans
• Legumes
• Nuts
• Seeds
• Whole grain breads
• Whole grain cereals
• Whole grain pastas
• Some dairy products
Bad Carbohydrates: (High Glycemic Carbs)
• Refined grains like white bread
and white rice
• Processed foods such as cake,
cookies, chips, certain lunch
meats, hotdog's
• Soft drinks
• Alcohol
Hypoglycemia
• Hypoglycemia, also known as low blood sugar or
low blood glucose, occurs when the glucose levels
in the blood drop below normal.
• tiredness, weakness, light-headedness, confusion
and hunger.
• Carbs are the main source of glucose because they
are broken down into simple sugars during
digestion and enter the cells with the help of
insulin, providing energy.
• Eating a small amount of carbs will quickly treat
hypoglycemia.
Ketosis
• Eating less than 130 grams of carbohydrates a day
can cause a buildup of ketones, which are
partially broken-down fats in the blood. This
condition is known as ketosis
• When your body doesn’t have enough glucose for
energy, it breaks down stored fat, producing
ketones.
• Mild ketosis can cause mental fatigue, bad
breath, nausea and a headache, but severe
ketosis can lead to painful swelling of the joints
and kidney stones.
• Aim for 225 to 325 grams of carbohydrates a day
to prevent ketosis and other health problems.
Weight Gain
• While low-carb diets are often used for weight loss,
severely restricting carbs can actually have the
opposite effect by making you feel hungrier than
normal.
• When you’re feeling ravenous, you’re more likely to
reach for fattening goodies rather than carrot sticks,
leading to weight gain over time.
• Studies show that people following a low-carb diet for
two years lost an average of 9 pounds, which is similar
to the amount lost on higher-carb diets
• MayoClinic.com reports. Consuming healthy, low-
calorie carbohydrates may actually help weight loss
because they’re high in fiber, which fills you up without
filling you out.
• Choosing Carbs
• Eating too much bread, potatoes, pasta, tortillas and
carbohydrate-rich sweets will cause weight gain, but there
are many nutritious, weight-friendly carbohydrates.
• Whole fruits and vegetables are high in vitamins and fiber
and low in calories, making them among the healthiest of
carbohydrates.
• Whole grains are another healthy choice – they haven’t
been stripped of their outer shell, which contains fiber and
important nutrients, such as selenium, potassium, iron and
magnesium.
• MayoClinic.com also recommends low-fat dairy products,
beans and legumes as healthy carbohydrate sources.
• Limit carbs with added sugar to reduce the risk of weight
gain, tooth decay and poor nutrition.
 BMI
• BMI stands for “body mass index” and it’s a
numeric expression of the relationship
between your height and weight.
• You calculate your BMI by dividing your weight
in kilograms by your height in meters squared.
BMI values are correlated with
body weight status:
• Underweight = <18.5
• Normal weight = 18.5–24.9
• Overweight = 25–29.9
• Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater