Building Services - III

Unit – I AIR CONDITIONING : BASIC REFRIGERATION PRINCIPLES

Thermodynamics – heat – temperature – latent heat of fusion –

evaporation, saturation temperature, pressure temperature
relationship for liquid refrigerants,– vapour compression cycle –
compressors refrigeration cycle components – evaporators –
refrigerant control devices – electric motors – air handling units
– cooling towers
Thermodynamics
The branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and
other forms of energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy),
and, by extension, of the relationships between all forms of energy.

The word thermodynamics was coined by William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) in

1749.

It comes from the Greek words: therme (heat) and dynamis (power).
The name heat-power is appropriate because thermodynamics developed
from efforts to explain the conversion of heat into power by steam engines.

All of thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of four quantities

• Temperature (T)
• Internal Energy (U)
• Entropy (S)
• Heat (Q)
The laws of thermodynamics define fundamental physical quantities
(temperature, energy, and entropy) that characterize thermodynamic systems.

The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy can not
be created or destroyed; it can only be redistributed or changed from one form to
another.
The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated
system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases.
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system
approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.

The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows, regarding

the properties of systems in equilibrium at absolute zero temperature:

The entropy of a perfect crystal, at absolute zero kelvin, is exactly equal to

zero.

At zero kelvin the system must be in a state with the minimum

possible energy, and this statement of the third law holds true if the perfect
crystal has only one minimum energy state.

• There is no formula associated with the 3rd Law of Thermodynamics

It is impossible to reduce any system to absolute zero in a finite series of

operations.

As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system

approaches a constant
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic
systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then all three are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
 PRESSURE
• Unit of Pressure Is
Pound Per Square Inch

• By increasing pressure, boiling temperature

can be increased
• At a pressure of 1.013 bar water will boil at
about 100C
• Water can boil around 30 C if pressure is
reduced to 0.4 bar
• Water can boil around 150C if pressure is
increased to 3 bar
 TYPES OF HEAT
SENSIBLE HEAT:
– Is Simply Heat That Can Be Sensed
– The quantity of heat that can be calculated by
measuring the DBT of the air is known as sensible
heat.

LATENT HEAT:

– Latent heat is the heat required to change

matter from one state to another

– Ice melts at 32F. But ice cube in glass of water,

when reaches melting point, it does not change
into water all at one time
 Heat Units
• Heat = energy transferred because of a temperature difference
– Btu = energy required to raise 1 lbm of water 1 °F
– kJ
• Specific heat (heat per unit mass)
Specific heat, also called specific heat capacity, is defined as the amount
of energy that has to be transferred to or from one unit
of mass (kilogram) or amount of substance (mole) to change the system
temperature by one degree.
Specific heat is a physical property, which means that it depends on the
substance under consideration and its state as specified by its properties
– Btu/(lbm∙°F), kJ/(kg∙°C)
– For gasses, two relevant quantities cv and cp
• Basic equation Q = mcΔt Q = heat transfer (Btu, kJ)
m = mass (kg, lbm)
c = specific heat
Δt = temperature difference
The enthalpy of fusion also known as (latent) heat of fusion is the change
in enthalpy resulting from heating a given quantity of a substance to change
its state from a solid to a liquid. The temperature at which this occurs is
the melting point.

The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol ∆Hvap) also known as the (latent) heat of
vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the enthalpy change required to transform a
given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure
 CHANGES IN LATENT HEAT

Sensible vs. latent heat

• Sensible heat Q = mcΔt
• Latent heat is associate with change of phase at constant temperature
– Latent heat of vaporization, hfg
– Latent heat of fusion, hfi
– hfg for water (100 °C, 1 atm) = 1220 Btu/lbm
– hfi for ice (0 °C, 1 atm) = 144 Btu/lbm
Evaporation
Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid
into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance

Evaporation is a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase that occurs at
temperatures below the boiling temperature at a given pressure
Saturation temperature :
The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure
at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with
thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition.

The temperature where a substance changes between its liquid and its vapor phase. If
the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin
to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed and conversely, a liquid
at saturation temperature will begin to evaporate as thermal energy is applied.

-ASHRAE Technical Committee (TC) 1.6, Terminology

PSYCHROMETRY :
The study of the properties of air and water vapor mixture is called psychrometry.

PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
The definitions of various psychrometric properties are given below.

DRY AIR :
The dry air is considered as a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen neglecting the
percentages of other gases.
Air 79% by volume is nitrogen 21% volume is oxygen

MOIST AIR:
It is a mixture of dry air and water vapor. The quantity of water vapor present in the
air depends upon the temperature of the air and its quantity may changes found zero
to maximum.
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE :
The temperature of air measured
by ordinary thermometer is known
as dry bulb temperature (DBT)

WET BULB TEMPERATURE:

The temperature
measured by a thermometer
when its bulk is covered with wet
cloth and is exposed to a current
of moving air is known as wet bulk
temperature (WBT).

The difference between DBT and

WBT is called wet bulb depression.
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE:
The temperature Of air is reduced by continuous cooling then the water vapor in the
air will start condensing at a particular temperature. This temperature is known as
dew point temperature (DPT). The difference between DBT and DPT is known as dew-
point depression.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY (OR HUMIDITY RATIO)

It is the weight of water vapor present per kg of dry air. It is given in grams per kg of
dry air.

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
The weight of water vapor present in unit volume of air is known as absolute humidity
(RH)

RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
The relative humidity is defined as the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given
volume to the mass of water vapour if the air is saturated at the same temperature.
 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
The psychrometric charts are plotted with DBT and specific humidity as co-ordinates.
The lines of constant WBT, Relative humidity, specific volume etc are plotted. In some
charts other details are also available to help the various calculations.
The psychrometric chart is highly important to illustrate the different psychrometric
processes and it saves lot of labor in making calculations.
THE TOTAL
PSYCHROMETRIC
PROCESS
The Human Comfort Zone for Winter and
Summer
Temperature range 680F and 780F.
RH range 20% and 80%

ASHRAE Comfort zone

In Winter : 68 - 74.50F
In Summer : 73 - 790F
Humidity : 40 - 60%

Most people would feel

comfortable at points
marked generally
comfortable
(Lennax Industries Inc.)
 TON OF REFRIGERATION
The heat required to melt

One ton of ice

Without increase in its temperature in a period
Of 24 hours is 1 TR of heat
1 x 2000 lbs. x 144 BTU / pound = 2,88,000 BTUs
Or
3.5 kW
Or
200 BTUs / minute
Systems: Heating
• Make heat (furnace, boiler, solar, etc.)
• Distribute heat within building (pipes, ducts, fans, pumps)
• Exchange heat with air (coils, strip heat, radiators, convectors, diffusers)
• Controls (thermostat, valves, dampers)

Systems: Cooling
• Absorb heat from building (evaporator or chilled water coil)
• Reject heat to outside (condenser)
• Refrigeration cycle components (expansion valve, compressor,
concentrator, absorber, refrigerant)
• Distribute cooling within building (pipes, ducts, fans, pumps)
• Exchange cooling with air (coils, radiant panels, convectors, diffusers)
• Controls (thermostat, valves, dampers, reheat)

Systems: Ventilation
• Fresh air intake (dampers, economizer, heat exchangers, primary
treatment)
• Air exhaust (dampers, heat exchangers)
• Distribute fresh air within building (ducts, fans)
• Air treatment (filters, etc.)
• Controls (thermostat, CO2 and other occupancy sensors, humidistats,
valves, dampers)
Cooling with dehumidification
The removal of water vapor from the air is termed as dehumidification
of air. The dehumidification of air is only possible if the air is cooled
below the DPT of the air.

Humidification
The process of humidification allows the air to mix with extra water. A
sufficient contact time between the air and water will normally result
in the air reaching 100 % saturation.
The process is very close to the evaporation from a wet bulb. It
therefore follows a line of constant wet bulb temperature.

cooling with dehumidification

The removal of water vapor from the air is termed as dehumidification
of air. The dehumidification of air is only possible if the air is cooled
below the DPT of the air.
Drain Pain Cooling coil
•Removes •Heat
moisture transfer from
condensed air to
from air refrigerant
stream •Extended
surface coil

Condenser

Expansion valve

Controls

Compressor
 Heating coil
•Heat
transfer from
fluid to air

Heat pump

Furnace

Boiler

Electric resistance

Controls
 Blower
•Overcome
pressure
drop of
system

Adds heat to air

stream

Makes noise

Potential hazard

Performs
differently at
different
conditions (air
flow and pressure
drop)
 Duct system
(piping for
hydronic
systems)
•Distribute
conditioned
air
•Remove air
from space

Provides
ventilation

Makes noise

Affects comfort

Affects indoor air

quality
 Diffusers
•Distribute
conditioned
air within
room

Provides
ventilation

Makes noise

Affects comfort

Affects indoor air

quality
Dampers
•Change
airflow
amounts

Controls outside
air fraction

Affects building
security
Filter
•Removes
pollutants
•Protects
equipment

Imposes
substantial
pressure drop

Requires
Maintenance
Controls
•Makes
everything
work

Temperature

Pressure (drop)

Air velocity

Volumetric flow

Relative humidity

Enthalpy

Electrical Current

Electrical cost

Fault detection
Components of a refrigeration system
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion device
 Evaporator coil

High side: All components

operating at or above the
condensing (or high) pressure.
Includes compressor.

Low side: All components

operating at or below the
evaporating (or low) pressure.
Includes expansion valve.
Major Components of Vapour Compression System
Compressor
There are primarily four types of compressors used in the air-
conditioning industry:
Reciprocating,
Scroll,
Screw
Centrifugal.
Reciprocating Compressor

The refrigerant vapor is compressed by a piston that

is located inside a cylinder.
The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a rod.
As the crankshaft rotates, it causes the piston to travel
back and forth inside the cylinder.
Suction valve and the discharge valve, are used to trap
the refrigerant vapor within the cylinder during this process.
Intake stroke
The piston travels away from the discharge valve and creates a vacuum effect
Reduction in the pressure within the cylinder to below suction pressure forces the
suction valve to open and the refrigerant vapor is drawn into the cylinder.

Compression stroke & discharge

The piston reverses its direction and travels toward the discharge valve, compressing
the refrigerant vapor
The suction valve is then closed, trapping the refrigerant vapor inside the cylinder.
As the piston continues to travel toward the discharge valve, the refrigerant vapor is
compressed.
The discharge valve is forced open and the compressed refrigerant vapor leaves the
cylinder.
Scroll compressor
It works on the principle of trapping the refrigerant vapor
and compressing it by gradually shrinking the volume of
the refrigerant.
The scroll compressor uses two scroll to perform this compression process.
The stationary scroll contains a discharge port.
The driven scroll is connected to a motor by a shaft and bearing assembly.
The refrigerant vapor enters through the outer edge of the scroll assembly and
discharges through the port at the center of the stationary scroll.
The orbiting motion causes the relative movement between the orbiting scroll and the
stationary scroll so that the pockets of refrigerant moving towards the discharge port
at the center of the assembly,
Hence, there is a gradually decreasing in refrigerant volume and increasing in pressure.
Scroll compressors are widely used in heat pumps, rooftop units, split systems, etc.
Screw Compressor
Screw compressor traps the refrigerant vapor
and compresses it by gradually shrinking the
volume of the refrigerant.

This particular screw compressor design uses two mating screw-like rotors (male and
female rotors) to perform the compression process.
Only the male rotor is driven by the compressor motor. The lobes of the male rotor
engage and drive the female rotor, so that the two parts counter-rotate.
Refrigerant vapor enters the compressor housing through the intake port and fills the
pockets formed by the lobes of the rotors.
As the rotors turn, they push these pockets of refrigerant toward the discharge end of
the compressor.
Continued rotation of the rotor lobes drives the trapped refrigerant vapor toward the
discharge end of the compressor.
This action progressively reduces the volume of the pockets (i/.e. compressing the
refrigerant).
When the pockets of refrigerant reach the discharge port, the compressed vapor is
released and the rotors force the remaining refrigerant from the pockets.
Centrifugal Compressor

The centrifugal compressor adopts the principle of dynamic compression by

converting kinetic energy to static energy to increase the pressure and temperature
of the refrigerant.

A centrifugal compressor comprises rotating impeller the centre of which is fitted

with blades that draw refrigerant vapor into radial passages that are internal to the
impeller body.

The rotation of the impeller causes the refrigerant vapor to accelerate within these
passages that leaves the impeller and enters the passages. These passages start out
small and become larger as the refrigerant travels through them. As the size of the
passage increases, the kinetic energy of the refrigerant decreases.
Open, hermetic, and semi-hermetic. A reciprocating compressor

Open compressor
 An open compressor is driven by an external power source, such as anelectric
motor or an engine.
 The motor is coupled to the compressor crankshaft by a flexible coupling.
 The coupling needs precise alignment.
 The shaft protrudes through the compressor housing and hence a seal is used to
prevent refrigerant from leaking out of the compressor housing , and these seals
are a prime source of oil and refrigerant leaks.
 This motor is cooled by air that is drawn in from the surrounding space.
Hermetic compressor
 A hermetic compressor seals the motor within the compressor housing.
 This motor is cooled by the refrigerant, either by refrigerant vapor that is being
drawn into the compressor from the suction line or by liquid refrigerant that is
being drawn from the liquid line.
 The heat from the motor is then rejected by the condenser.
 Hermetic compressors eliminate the need for the shaft couplings.
 However, if the motor burns out, a system with a hermetic compressor will
require thorough cleaning that is not needed for an open compressor.

Semi-hermetic compressor
 The motor for a semihermetic compressor is also contained within the
compressor housing and is cooled by the refrigerant.
 The term “semihermetic” means that the sealed housing is designed to be
opened to repair or checking the compressor or motor
BASICS OF REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Mechanical refrigeration is accomplished by continuously circulating,
evaporating, and condensing a fixed supply of refrigerant in a closed system.

Evaporation occurs at a low temperature and low pressure while condensation

occurs at a high temperature and high pressure. Thus, it is possible to transfer
heat from an area of low temperature (i.e., refrigerator cabinet) to an area of
high temperature (i.e., kitchen).

Beginning the cycle at the evaporator inlet (1), the low-pressure liquid
expands, absorbs heat, and evaporates, changing to a low-pressure gas at the
evaporator outlet (2).

The compressor (4) pumps this gas from the evaporator through the
accumulator (3), increases its pressure, and discharges the high-pressure gas
to the condenser (5). The accumulator is designed to protect the compressor
by preventing slugs of liquid refrigerant from passing directly into the
compressor. An accumulator should be included on all systems subjected to
varying load conditions or frequent compressor cycling. In the condenser, heat
is removed from the gas, which then condenses and becomes a high-pressure
liquid. In some systems, this high-pressure liquid drains from the condenser
into a liquid storage or receiver tank (6). On other systems, both the receiver
and the liquid line valve (7) are omitted.

A heat exchanger (8) between the liquid line and the suction line is also an
optional item, which may or may not be included in a given system design.
Between the condenser and the evaporator an expansion device (10) is
located. Immediately preceding this device is a liquid line strainer/drier (9),
which prevents plugging of the valve or tube by retaining scale, dirt, and
moisture. The flow of refrigerant into the evaporator is controlled by the
pressure differential across the expansion device or, in the case of a thermal
expansion valve, by the degree of superheat of the suction gas. Thus, the
thermal expansion valve shown requires a sensor bulb located at the
evaporator outlet. In any case, the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator
normally increases as the evaporator load increases.

As the high-pressure liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator, it is subjected to a

much lower pressure due to the suction of the compressor and the pressure
drop across the expansion device. Thus, the refrigerant tends to expand and
evaporate. In order to evaporate, the liquid must absorb heat from the air
passing over the evaporator.

Eventually, the desired air temperature is reached and the thermostat or cold
control (11) will break the electrical circuit to the compressor motor and stop the
compressor.
As the temperature of the air through the evaporator rises, the thermostat or
cold control remakes the electrical circuit. The compressor starts, and the cycle
continues.

In addition to the accumulator, a compressor crankcase heater (12) is included

on many systems. This heater prevents accumulation of refrigerant in the
compressor crankcase during the non-operating periods and prevents liquid
slugging or oil pump out on startup.

Additional protection to the compressor and system is afforded by a high- and

low-pressure cutout (13). This control is set to stop the compressor in the event
that the system pressures rise above or fall below the design operating range.
Other controls not indicated on the basic cycle which may be part of a system
include: evaporator pressure regulators, hot gas bypass regulators, electric
solenoid valves, suction pressure regulators, condenser pressure regulators,
low-side or high-side float refrigerant controllers, oil separators, etc.

It is extremely important to analyze completely every system and understand

the intended function of each component before attempting to determine the
cause of a malfunction or failure.
Definitions of Refrigerants

 A refrigerant is a fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigeration system.

 Most refrigerants absorb heat during evaporation at low temperature

and low pressure and reject heat during condensation at a higher
temperature and higher pressure.

 Some refrigerants produce a refrigeration effect when they throttle and

expand in the refrigeration cycle.

Classification of Refrigerants

Refrigerants most commonly used refrigeration systems can be classified into

four groups:

 halocarbons,
 azeotropes,
 hydrocarbons, and
 inorganic compounds
Hydrocarbons
 Refrigerants belonging to the hydrocarbon group are ethane, propane, butane and
isobutane.

 They are produced from petroleum in an oil refinery.

 This group of refrigerants is used in the refrigeration systems in oil refineries and
the petrochemical industry due to their low cost and ready availablility.

 Hydrocarbons are flammable and so safety precautions are of utmost importance

in the petrochemical industry.

Inorganic compounds
 Inorganic compounds were refrigerants used in refrigerant this group are
ammonia NH3
Halocarbons

 Refrigerants belonging to the halocarbon group are derivatives of the

hydrocarbons obtained by substituting chlorine or fluorine for the
hydrogen atoms in methane and ethane.
 As chlorine and fluorine are both halogens, this group of refrigerants
is called the halogenated hydrocarbons or halocarbons.
 They are sometimes referred to freons which are colourless,
non-inflammable, non-corrodent to most metals and generally
non-toxic
 Common refrigerants in this group are R-11, R-12, R-13 and R-22.
Azeotropes

 An azeotrope is a mixture of two substances which cannot be

separated into its components by distillation.
 It evaporates and condenses as a single substance and Its properties
are completely different from its constituents.
 For example, azeotrope R-500 is a mixture composed of 73.8 per
cent R-12 and 26.2 per cent R-152.
Terminology of Refrigerants
In the early days of refrigeration, refrigerants were called by their chemical names.
 However, a numbering system has been developed.
 Each kind of refrigerant is represented by a number, and in front of this number
is a prefix `R’ which represent 'Refrigerant'.
 Before 'R' is used as the prefix, 'Freon' & 'Genetron', the trade names of
refrigerants produced by two companies.
 For example, the R-12 they produced is called Freon-12 and Genetron-12.
 The digits related to number of fluorine, hydrogen and carbon atoms in the
molecule.

Selection of a suitable refrigerant

It depends on many factors, such as the evaporating temperature required during
operation, the coefficient of performance COP, safety requirements, and the size and
location of the refrigeration plant.

In order to select a suitable refrigerant for a refrigeration system of known size and
evaporating temperature, the following factors must be considered:

 The volume flow rate required per kW of refrigeration capacity

 The coefficient of performance COP
 Safety requirements
 Physical properties
 Operating properties
Refrigerants
"Freon" is a trade name for a family of haloalkane.

These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety
properties: they were not flammable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure,
nor obviously toxic as were the fluids they replaced, such as sulfur dioxide.

Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere

when they escape.

In the stratosphere, CFCs break up due to UV radiation, releasing their chlorine free
radicals. These chlorine free radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone
through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules
to break down. This causes severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's
surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation, and has been shown to lead to increased
rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it
binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule.
Refrigerants
CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12.

Newer refrigerants with reduced ozone depletion effect such as HCFCs (R-22, used in most
homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use.

Newer refrigerants are currently the subject of research, such as supercritical carbon dioxide,
known as R-744. These have similar efficiencies compared to existing CFC and HFC based
compounds, and have many orders of magnitude lower global warming potential.

Refrigerant States
Modern refrigerants exist in either the vapor or liquid states. Refrigerants have such a low
freezing point that they are rarely in the frozen or solid state. Refrigerants can coexist as a vapor
and liquid as long as conditions are right.

Both the evaporator and condenser house liquid and vapor refrigerant simultaneously if the
system is operating properly. So, refrigerant liquid and vapor can exist in either high- or low-
pressure sides on the refrigeration system.

Refrigerant Conditions
Along with refrigerant pressures and states, there are refrigerant conditions. Refrigerant
conditions can be saturated, superheated, or sub-cooled.
CFC, HCFC,HFC

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
These have a high ozone-depleting potential (ODP) contributing to the
breakdown of the ozone layer, are banned by the Montreal Pro (an
international agreement to protect the earth's ozone layer) and has been
ceased to be manufactured in the European Community (e.g.R11, R12 and
R114.)

HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
These have limited ODP are classified under the Montreal Protocol as
transitional substances and are due to be phased out early in next century.
Examples are R22, R123 and R124.

HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons)
These contain no chlorine and therefore have zero ODP ` and in
consequence are not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Examples are
R125, R134a and R152a. R134a can be substituted directly, requiring
replacement of some serviceable' components only for R12.
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
In addition to an ODP classification, refrigerants are also given ratings for global
warming potential (GWP), an index providing a simple comparison with carbon dioxide
which has an index rating of unity.

Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL)

Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL), in parts per million, which reflect the toxicity level
of the various refrigerants. In the knowledge of these allowable concentration levels in
occupied areas, it is necessary that adequate rates of ventilation be provided in plant
rooms and recommended that refrigerant leak detection be installed.

Prevention of Leakage
Consideration should be given to limiting the volume of refrigerant gas in a system
together with improved standards of design and installation for refrigerant pipework
in order to reduce the risk of leakage.

Co efficient of performance (COP)

It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed in a given time to the work done

Cop = Refrigeration Effect / Work done

Properties of Some Refrigerants

CFC HCFC HFC

Properties Ammonia R11 R12 R22 R123 R134

Coefficient of performance 4.75 5.00 4.69 4.65 4.93 4.61

Ozone depleting potential 0 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.014 0

Global warming potential 0 1500 4500 510 29 420

Occupational exposure limit 25 1000 1000 1000 10 1000

(ppm)
Ideal refrigerants
 Having the desired thermodynamic properties,
 Nontoxic
 Non-flammable
 Completely stable inside a system
 Environmentally benign-even with respect to decomposition
products-and abundantly available or easy to manufacture
 Self-lubricating
 Compatible with other materials used to fabricate and service
refrigeration systems
 Easy to handle and detect
 System not operating at extreme pressures, either high or low
Types of Refrigerators:
 Vapor compression cycle
 Vapor Absorption cycle

Vapor compression cycle

This is most commonly used in domestic refrigeration system. In VCR the
vapor alternatively undergoes a change of phase from vapor to liquid and
vice versa during a cycle.
The following are the components :
Compressor : The function of a compressor is to compress the input
refrigerant of low pressure and low temperature. As a result, the
pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant increases. Generally,
reciprocating compressors are used in a refrigeration system. An external
motor can also be used to drive the compressor.
Condenser : The condenser is a coil of tubes, which are usually made of
copper. This is used to condense the refrigerant which is in the form of
vapor. And convert into liquid.
Expansion Valve: This is otherwise called as throttle valve. This valve is
used to control the flow rate of the refrigerant and also to reduce the
pressure of the refrigerant.
Evaporator: This is the part in which the cooling takes place. This is kept
in the space where cooling is required. It is also coil of tubes made of
copper.
Working Principles : The refrigerant which is at a low pressure and low
temperature flows into the compressor. In the compressor the refrigerant
is compressed and converted into a high pressure and high temperature
refrigerant.
This high pressure and high temperature refrigerant in vapor form then
passes through the condenser where it is condensed into high pressure
liquid refrigerant.
This high pressure liquid refrigerant thus produced passes through the
expansion valve.
In the expansion valve the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant
drops and it partly evaporates. It is allowed to flow into the evaporator at
a controlled rate.
In the evaporator, the partly liquid and vapor refrigerant is mostly
evaporated and converted into a low pressure vapor. During this process,
the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporisation from the material
that is to be cooled. Thus, the body is cooled in the evaporator.
Then, the low pressure vapor refrigerant enters the compressor and the
cycle is repeated. Thus, a material is cooled in vapor compression system.
Vapor Absorption cycle
The compressor in the vapor compression refrigeration system consumes
a lot of energy. To avoid this, the vapor absorption refrigeration system
has been developed. Inm this system, the compression process of VCC is
eliminated. Instead of that the three following process are introduced.
• Ammonia vapor is absorbed into water
• This mixture is pumped into a high pressure cycle.
• This solution is heated to produce ammonia vapor.
Construction :
The vapor absorption refrigeration system has the following components :
Generator: The Generator receives the strong solution of aqua ammonia
from the absorber and heats it. Because of this heating, the aqua
ammonia solution gets separated into ammonia vapor at high pressure
and hot weak ammonia solution which contains mostly water.
Condenser : The condenser converts the high pressure ammonia vapor
received from the generator into high pressure ammonia liquid. This
condensation is done by means of circulating cool water.
Expansion Valve: This is otherwise called as throttle valve. Since the
expansion which takes place here is throttling. While passing through this
valve, the liquid ammonia gets expanded and gets converted into low
pressure and low temperature ammonia.
Evaporator: The evaporator is otherwise known as cold chamber. Here the
refrigerant absorbs the heat from the material which is to be cooled and gets
evaporated. It has many coils made of copper.
Absorber: The Absorber receives the low pressure ammonia vapor from the
evaporator and the weak ammonia solution from the generator and mixes
them well to form a strong solution of aqua ammonia.
Working Principles : The working fluid in Vapor absorption refrigeration
system is normally ammonia. The ammonia vapor and water are mixed to
form, a strong solution of aqua ammonia in the absorber. This aqua ammonia
solution is then pumped into the generator. In the generator, this solution is
heated. Because of heating, ammonia gets evaporated at high pressure and
leaves behind the weak ammonia solution, which mostly contains water.
The High pressure ammonia vapor produced by the generator is condensed in
the condenser and it becomes ammonia liquid, which is at high pressure.
The High pressure ammonia liquid is allowed to pass through the expansion
valve or throttling valve where it expands and becomes a low pressure and
low temperature ammonia which mostly contains liquid ammonia and a little
vapor ammonia.
Ammonia at low pressure and low temperature then passes through the
evaporator where it absorbs the heat from the material which is to be cooled
and gets evaporated.
The evaporator is where the real cooling takes place. Because of the heat
absorbed by ammonia, it gets evaporated and becomes low pressure
ammonia vapor. The low pressure ammonia vapor is then sent into the
absorber and the cycle is repeated.
Comparison between Vapor compression cycle and
Vapor Absorption cycle
S.NO. VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE
1. It is more noise and wear & tear
because of more moving parts
2. Mechanical energy is utilized by
means of compressor
3. Refilling of refrigerant is easier
4. During partial loading conditions the
performance is poor
5. The liquid refrigerant accumulated in
the cylinder may damage the cylinder,
so preventive measures are needed.
VAPOR ABSORPTION CYCLE
This is comparatively quieter
Heat energy is utilized
Refilling of refrigerant is difficult
The performance is not affected
even at partial loading
Liquid refrigerant do not affect the
performance of the system. They
do not produce any bad effect.
 Refrigeration Typical refrigerants
Short descriptions
application used
Domestic Appliances used for keeping food
R-600a, R-134a
refrigeration in dwelling units
Commercial Holding and displaying frozen and
R-134a, R-404A, R-507
refrigeration fresh food in retail outlets
Equipment to preserve, process
Food processing R-123, R-134a, R-407C, R-
and store food from its source to
and cold storage 410A, R-507
the wholesale distribution point
Large equipment, typically 25 kW
to 30 MW, used for chemical
Industrial R-123, R-134a, R-404A, R-
processing, cold storage, food
refrigeration 407C, R-507, R-717
processing, building and district
heating and cooling
Equipment to preserve and store
Transport
goods, primarily foodstuffs, during R-134a, R-407C, R-410A
refrigeration
transport by road, rail, air and sea
Low-temperature cooling of CMOS
Electronic cooling circuitry and other components in R-134a, R-404A, R-507
large computers and servers
 Air Handling Units
AHU – a central unit consisting of a blower, heating and cooling elements, filters, etc.,
that are in direct contact with the air flow.

 delivers air to the zones

Heats cools the air
Often integrates ventilation

• AHU typically consist of two fans(Supply & Exhaust) to circulate air inside a building.
• To improve air quality, circulating air is mixed with fresh air.
• This can be equipped with heat recovery unit for energy saving purposes
• Supply air temperature is kept constant so that temperature can be adjusted locally
with thermostats.
Air Handling Units (AHUs)
Essentially, an Air Handling Unit system comprises a large insulated metal box that
contains a fan, heating and/or cooling elements, filters, sound attenuators and
dampers. In most cases, the AHU is connected to air distribution ductwork;
alternatively, the AHU can be open to the space it serves.

Supply air passing through the AHU is filtered and is either heated or cooled,
depending on specified duty and the ambient weather conditions. In some buildings,
Air Handling Units are used only to supply fresh air for ventilation and extract stale air.

For heating or cooling, AHUs may be connected to central plant such as boilers or
chillers, receiving hot or chilled water for heat exchange with the incoming air.
Alternatively, heating or cooling may be provided by electric heating elements or
direct expansion refrigeration units built into the air handler.

When AHU systems are used to extract stale air from the building, a controlled
proportion of this air may be recirculated to avoid having to condition all supplied air.
AHUs can also incorporate heat recovery mechanisms to extract heat from the air
being expelled and use it to heat incoming supply air.
The basic function of the AHU is take in outside air, condition it and supply fresh air to a
building. All exhaust air is discharged, which secures an acceptable indoor air quality.

Depending on the required temperature of the conditioned air, the fresh air is either
heated by a recovery unit or heating coil, or cooled by a cooling coil.

In buildings, where the hygienic requirements for air quality are lower, some of the air
from the rooms can be re-circulated by a mixing chamber, and result in significant
energy savings.

A mixing chamber has dampers for controlling the ratio between the return, outside,
and exhaust air.

Air Handling Units vary considerably in size, capacity and complexity, depending on the
job they are designed to perform.

An AHU designed for outdoor use, typically on roofs, is also known as a rooftop unit
(RTU).
 Air Handling System (all air)

 Constant Air Volume (CAV) System

 Constant zone air flow

 Meeting varying loads with varying supply air temperature

 Variable Air Volume (VAV) System

 Constant zone supply air flow

 Meeting varying loads with varying supply airflow

 Dual Duct (DD) System

 Mix hot and cold air at each zone

 Use constant or varying supply airflow

 Multi Zone (MZ) System

 Mix hot and cold air for each zone at the air handler
TYPICAL CAV AHU SYSTEM
TYPICAL VAV AHU SYSTEM
TYPICAL DUAL DUCT SYSTEM
TYPICAL MULTI DUCT SYSTEM
COOLING TOWERS

A cooling tower, is a specialized heat exchanger in which two fluids (air and
water) are brought into direct contact with each other to affect the transfer of
heat.

• Boxed shaped collection of multilayered wooden slats

• Air flow breaks up water as it falls

• Design ensures good contact between water and air

• Used to remove heat from water

Similar to an evaporative cooler, but the purpose is often to cool water

• Widely used for heat rejection in HVAC systems

• Also used to reject industrial process heat
OPERATING CONDITIONS

• 10-20% of heat (sensible heat) removed from contact between water and air

• 80-90% of heat removed following evaporation

• Evaporation is most critical factor affecting tower efficiency!

Factors which affect cooling tower performance:

– relative humidity
– temperature
– wind velocity
– tower design
– water contamination
– equipment problems (pump failure)
 Basic Components
• Water distribution system = includes header which distributes (sprays) water
from top of tower over splash bars

• Fan = induced and forced draft towers use fans to push or pull air

• Air intake louvers = louvers on side of towers which direct air into tower
(fixed or movable)

• Water basin = collects water at bottom of tower prior to discharge

• fill = material inside a tower which redirects air flow and water

• column = wooden or metal post which supports tower

• stack = hyperbolic towers and chimney towers have huge stacks located at
top

• make-up water = water which is added due to evaporation and blowdown

• splash bars = used to redirect the downward flow of water

A cooling tower is used to dispose of unwanted heat from a chiller.

Water-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled

chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or near wet-bulb
temperatures.

Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher dry-bulb temperature, and
thus have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness.

Large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more
cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial
cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers.

HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a water-cooled
chiller or water-cooled condenser.

A ton of air-conditioning is defined as the removal of 12,000 BTU/hour (3500

W). The equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually rejects about
15,000 BTU/hour (4400 W) due to the additional waste heat-equivalent of
the energy needed to drive the chiller's compressor.
This equivalent ton is defined as the heat rejection in cooling 3 US
gallons/minute (1,500 pound/hour) of water 10 °F (6 °C), which amounts to
15,000 BTU/hour, assuming a chiller coefficient of performance (COP) of 4.0.
This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 14.

Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water
source heat pumps that share a common piping water loop.

In this type of system, the water circulating inside the water loop removes
heat from the condenser of the heat pumps whenever the heat pumps are
working in the cooling mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is
used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the atmosphere.

By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the
condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be
heated. When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the
building, the cooling tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or
winterized to prevent freeze damage), and heat is supplied by other means,
usually from separate boilers.
Cooling Towers for Refrigeration

An important device used in any refrigeration or air conditioning system is a

condenser. A condenser is used in the high pressure side of a refrigeration or
air conditioning system to convert the high-pressure vapour refrigerant from
the compressor into liquid refrigerant. The medium used in a condenser may
be water or air, depending upon the application. In the case of water cooled
condensers, the warm water being pumped by the condenser should be
cooled with the help of cooling towers so that the same water may be re-
circulated to the condenser.

Principle of Operation for Cooling Towers

The principle of operation of cooling towers is very similar to that of the

evaporative type of condensers, in which the warm water gets cooled by
means of evaporation. Water evaporates as a result of the hot water droplet
coming in contact with the air (which is being pumped out by means of a fan).
This evaporating water also absorbs the latent heat from the water
surrounding it. By losing latent heat, the water is cooled.
Parallel vs. Series Flow
Types of cooling towers

According to the method adopted to circulate the air, cooling towers may be classified as:

Cooling Towers

Natural Draft Mechanical Draft

Splash Deck
Spray Type Forced Draft Induced Draft
Type

Counter
Cross Flow
Flow
Natural Draft Cooling Tower

As the name indicates, the air is circulated inside the cooling tower by natural
convection. The natural draft cooling towers are further classified as:

1. Natural draft cooling towers spray type, and

2. Natural draft cooling towers splash deck type.

Spray type
The entire system is housed inside a box-shaped structure which also accommodates
spray headers, spray nozzles, and louvers. The louvers (usually made of steel) are
placed on the sides to enhance natural circulation of air inside the cooling tower.

To prevent the carry over of water droplets to the atmosphere, the louvers are slanted
towards the inside. Usually these types of cooling towers are located outside the
building, so that the air can pass freely through the tower.

Warm water from the condenser is fed to the spray header by means of a pump. The
spray header is located on top as shown in the sketch. The spray nozzles spray the
warm water inside the tower.
 Spray Header

Spray Nozzle Warm Water from

the condenser
Air Outlet
Air Inlet

Louvers

Cool Water to the

Make up Water condenser

NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS SPRAY TYPE

Air from the atmosphere comes in contact with the warm water, thereby causing
some water droplets to evaporate. The evaporating water also absorbs some amount
of latent heat from the surrounding water, which causes the remaining water to cool.

The passing air also absorbs some amount of sensible heat from the warm water. A
make-up line, which may be controlled by a simple float, may be used to make up the
loss of water due to evaporation. The cooled water may be then taken back to the
condenser.

The size of the spray plays a vital role. If the spray is too fine, a greater amount of
water will be taken away by the air. On the other hand, if the size of the spray is too
large, the area of contact of water with the air will be reduced.

Splash Deck Type

This type of cooling tower is very similar to that of the spray type. Instead of a spray
header, a water box is used. The water box has small holes at the bottom. It also
contains decking inside the tower. The hot water from the condenser enters into the
water box and splashes via holes in the water box on the decking. The main objective
of the decking is to increase the surface area of contact of air with the warm water.
This type of cooling tower is 20-30% more effective than the spray type.
Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers
The mechanical draft cooling towers are very much similar to that of the natural draft
cooling towers. As the name indicates, air is circulated inside the tower mechanically
instead of natural circulation. Propeller fans or centrifugal fans may be used.

Advantages of mechanical draft cooling towers over natural draft cooling towers:

• For the same capacity used, the mechanical draft cooling towers are much
smaller than the natural draft cooling towers. This is because of the increase
in cooling capacity due to increase in volume of the air being forced out by
fan.
• Capacity control is possible in mechanical draft cooling tower. By controlling
the speed of the fan, the volume of air can be controlled, which in turn
controls the capacity.
• The natural draft cooling towers can be located only in open space. As they
do not depend upon the atmospheric air, the mechanical draft cooling
towers shall be located even inside the building.

Disadvantages of using mechanical draft cooling towers:

• More power is required to run the system,

• Increased running cost due to increase in maintenance of the fans, motors
and its associated controls,
According to the location of the fan, they are
further classified as:

1.Forced draft cooling towers, and

2.Induced draft cooling towers.

Forced Draft Cooling Towers

In this system, fan is located near the bottom

and on the side. This fan forces the air from
bottom to top.

An eliminator is used to prevent loss of

water droplets along with the forced air.
Induced Draft Cooling
Towers
In this system, a centrally
located fan at the top, takes
suction from the tower and
discharges it to the
atmosphere.

The only between the induced

draft cooling tower and forced
draft cooling tower is that the
fan is located at the top in the
induced draft cooling tower.
Crossflow
Crossflow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow.
Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material.
Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues
through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan
forces the air out into the atmosphere.

A distribution or hot water basin consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in its
bottom is located near the top of a cross flow tower. Gravity distributes the water
through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material.

Advantages of the cross flow design:

• Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
• Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.
• Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.

Disadvantages of the cross flow design:

• More prone to freezing than counter flow designs.

• Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
• More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counter flow designs, especially in dusty
or sandy areas.
Induced Draft, Cross Flow CT
Counter flow
In a counter flow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow. Air flow
first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then drawn up vertically. The
water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and then flows
downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow.

Advantages of the counter flow design:

• Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.

• Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.

Disadvantages of the counter flow design:

• Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
• Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively
affected.
• Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill
into the cold water basin
Induced Draft, Counter Flow CT