Wireless Communications

Wireless
Communications
Course Structure
• Motivation and introduction
• The cellular concept and frequency planning
• Mobile radio propagation I/ large scale path loss
• Mobile radio propagation II/ multipath and small scale
fading
• Modulation techniques for mobile communications
• Channel coding for wireless communications
• Multiple access for wireless communications
• Introduction to wireless networking
• Introduction to some wireless communication
standards
What is wireless communication?
• Transmitting and receiving voice and data
using electromagnetic waves in open space
-the information from sender to receiver is carried

over a well-defined frequency band (channel).
-each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and

capacity (bit-rate)
-different channels can be used to transmit information

in parallel and independently.
Example
• Assume a spectrum of 120 KHz is allocated
over a base frequency for communication
between stations A and B.
• Each channel occupies 40 KHz
Types of Wireless Communication
• Mobile
-cellular phones
• Portable
-IEEE 802.11b (WiFi)
- IEEE 802.15.3 (UWB)
• Fixed
-IEEE 802.16 (Wireless MAN)
Typical Frequencies
• FM Radio ~ 88 MHz
• TV Broadcast ~ 200 Mhz
• GSM Phones ~ 900 Mhz
• GPS ~ 1.2 GHZ
• PCS Phones ~ 1.8 GHz
• Bluetooth ~ 2.4 GHz
• WiFi ~ 2.4 GHz
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Different freqs get attenuated differently by air

• Air is a freq selective channel in the sense of
attenuation.
James Clerk Maxwell
His work established the theoretical foundation for

the development of wireless communications
Why Wireless Communication? (1)
• Freedom from wires
-No cost of installing wires or rewiring
-No bunches of wires running here and there
-”Auto magical” instantaneous communication without
physical connection set up, e.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
• Global coverage
-Communications can reach where wiring is infeasible
or costly, e.g., rural areas, old buildings, battlefields,
vehicles, outer space (through communication
satellites)
• Stay Connected
-Roaming allows flexibility to stay connected anywhere
and any time
-Rapidly growing market attests to public need for
mobility and uninterrupted access.
• Flexibility
-Services reach you wherever you go (mobility). E.g.,
you don’t have to go to your lab to check your mail.
-Connect to multiple devices simultaneously (no
physical connection required)
• Increasing dependence on telecommunication
services for business and personal reasons
• Consumers and businesses are willing to pay for it
• Basic mantra: Stay connected – anywhere, anytime

Challenges (1)
• Efficient Hardware
-Low power Transmitter, Receivers
-Low power Signal Processing tools
• Efficient use of finite radio spectrum

-Cellular frequency reuse, medium access control protocol….
• Integrated services
-Voice, data, multimedia over a single network.
-Service differentiation, priorities, resource sharing…
Challenges (2)
• Network support for user mobility
(mobile scenarios)
-location identifier, handover….
• Maintaining quality of service over

unreliable links
• Connectivity and coverage

(internetworking)
Challenges (3)
• Fading
• Multipath
• Higher probability of data corruption

-Hence, need for stronger channel codes
• Need for stronger security mechanisms

-privacy, authentication
Wireless vs Mobile
• Note: wireless does not necessarily mean
mobile
• Wireless systems may be

-Fixed (e.g., metropolitan area networks)
-Portable (e.g., wireless interaction between
TV and VCR
-Mobile (e.g., mobile phones)
Types of Wireless Communication (1)
• Radio Transmission
-Easily generated, omni-directionally travel long distances,
easily penetrates buildings.
-Problems:
--frequency-dependent
--relative low bandwidth
--tightly licensed by the governments
• Microwave transmission
-Widely used for long distance communication
-Gives a high S/N ratio, relatively inexpensive
-Problems:
--don’t pass through buildings well
--weather and frequency dependent
Current Wireless Systems
• Cellular Systems
• Wireless LANs
• Satellite Systems
• Paging Systems
• PANs (Bluetooth)
1. Cellular Systems
Reuse channel to maximize capacity
• Geographic region divided into cells
• Frequencies/time slots/codes reused at spatially-
separated locations
• Base stations/Mobile Telephone Switching Offices
(MTSOs) coordinate handoff and control functions
2. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
• WLANs connect “local”
computers (100m range=>
confined regions)
• Breaks data into packets
• Channel access is shared
(random access)
• Backbone Internet provides
best-effort service
• Poor performance in some
applications (e.g., video)
• Low mobility
Wireless LAN Standards
3. Satellite Systems (1)
• Cover very large area (global coverage)
-very useful in sparsely populated areas: rural
areas sea, mountains, etc.
• Different orbit heights

-GEOs (39,000 Km) versus LEOs (2,000 Km)
• Optimized for one way transmission

-radio (XM, DAB) and movie (Sat TV)
broadcasting
• Expensive base station (satellites)

3. Satellite Systems (2)
• Limited-quality voice/data transmission
• Traditional applications
-Weather satellites
-Radio and TV broadcasting
-Military satellites
• Telecommunication Applications
-Global telephone connections
-Backbone for global network
-GPS
• Iridium, Globalstar, Teledesic, Inmarsat are some

example systems
6. Personal Area Network (PANs)
• Bluetooth
-Cable replacement technology (low cost)
-Short range (10 m, extendable to 100 m)
-2.4 GHz band (crowded)
-1 data (700) and 3 voice channels
-1 Mbps data rate shared between 7 devices
-TDD duplex scheme
-Polling based multiple access
-Widely supported by telecommunications, PC,
and consumer electronic companies
Emerging Wireless Systems
• Ad hoc wireless network
• Sensor networks
• Distributed control networks
• Ultra Wide band (UWB) Systems
Ad Hoc Networks (1)
• Peer-to-peer
communication
• No backbone
infrastructure
• Routing can be
multihop
• Topology is dynamic
• Fully connected with
different link SINRs
Ad Hoc Networks (2)
• Ad-hoc networks provide a flexible network
infrastructure for many emerging applications.
• The capacity of such networks is generally unknown.
• Transmission, access, and routing strategies for these

networks are generally ad-hoc.
• Cross layer design critical and very challenging.
• Energy constraints impose interesting design tradeoffs

for communication and networking.
Sensor Networks
Energy is the driving constraint

• Nodes powered by non-rechargeable batteries.
• Data flows to centralized location.
• Low per-node rates buy up to 100,000 nodes.
• Data highly correlated in time and space.
• Nodes can cooperate in transmission, reception,
compression, and signal processing.
Distributed control over Wireless Links
• Packet loss and/or delays impacts controller performance.

• Controller design should be robust to network faults.
• Joint application and communication network design.
Ultra Wide Band Systems (1)
The Modern Wireless
Communication Systems
Basic Concepts: Multiple Access
• Multiple access schemes are used to allow many
mobile users to share a finite amount of radio
spectrum.
• The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high

capacity by simultaneously allocating the bandwidth.
• Constraint: there should not be severe performance

degradation.
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
The Cellular Concept
System Design Issues
Cellular Systems – Basic
Concepts (1)
• High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage
of each base station to a small geographic region
called a cell.
• Same frequencies/time slots /codes are reused
by spatially separating the base stations.
• A switching technique called handoff enables a
call to proceed uninterrupted when one user
moves from one cell to another.
• Resolves problem of limited radio spectrum.
Cellular Systems – Basic
Concepts (2)
• Neighboring stations are assigned a different
group of channels so as to minimize the
interference.
• By systematically spacing base stations, the
channel groups may be reused as many
number of times as necessary.
• As demand increases, the number of base
stations may be increased thereby providing
additional capacity.
Cellular Telephone systems
Forward and Reverse Channels
• Forward voice channels (FVC): used for voice
transmission from BS to MS.
• Reverse voice channels (RVC): used for voice
transmission from MS to BS.
• Forward control channels (FCC): used for
initiating a call from BS to MS.
• Reverse control channels (RVC): used for
initiating a call from MS to BS.
• The FCC and RCC are also called setup channels.

Anatomy of a Cellular Call
• A cell phone, when turned on, (though not yet
engaged in a call) scans the group of FCC to
determine the one with the strongest signal.
• It monitors that channel until it drops below a

usable threshold. It then scans for another
channel which is the strongest.
• Control channels are defined and standardized

over the entire area of service. Typically the
control channels use up to 5% of the total
number of channels.
A Call to a Mobile User (1)
• The MSC dispatches the request to all base
stations. The Mobile Identification Number
(MIN) is broadcasted as a paging message over all
FCC throughout the service area.
• The MS receives the paging message from the BS

it is monitoring. It responds by identifying itself
over the RCC.
• The BS conveys the handshake to the MSC. The

MSC instructs the BS to move to an unused voice
channel.
A Call to a Mobile User (2)
• The BS signals the MS to change over to an
unused FVC and RVC.
• A data message (called alert) is transmitted over

the FVC to instruct the mobile to ring.
• All of these sequence of events occur in just a few

seconds, are not noticeable to the user.
• While the call is in progress, the MSC adjusts the

transmitted power in order to maintain the call
quality.
A Call from Mobile User
• A call initiation request is sent to the RCC.
• Along with this, the MS transmits its MIN, Electronic

Serial Number (ESN) and the phone number of the called
party.
• The MS also transmits the Station Class Mark (SCM)

which indicates the maximum transmitter power level for
the particular user.
• The BS forwards the data to the MSC, which validates the

data and makes connections to the called party through
the PSTN.
Frequency Reuse: the Need
• Fixed telephone network runs wires to every
household.
• Suppose we give every household their own allocation

of radio spectrum for analog speech of 4KHz
bandwidth.
• 1 million households (Sto Dgo) x 4 KHz = 4 GHz!
• Clearly impractical!
-no other services possible using radio transmission
-most of the spectrum unused most of the time
Frequency Reuse (2)
• Cellular radio systems rely on intelligent
allocation and reuse of channels throughout the
coverage area.
• Each base station is allocated a group of radio

channels to be used within the small geographic
area of its cell.
• Neighboring base stations are given different

channel allocations from each other.
Frequency Reuse (3)
• By design of antennas, the coverage area is
limited within the cell, and the same group of
frequencies is re used to cover another cell
separated by a large enough distance to keep co-
channel interference within limits.
• The design procedure of allocating channel

groups for all of the cellular base stations within a
system is called Frequency Reuse or Frequency
Planning.
Example of Frequency Reuse
The Call Shape (1)
Ideal signal strength/cell coverage

The Cell Shape (2)
Signal strength contour indicating actual cell coverage.

This depends on terrain, presence of obstruction and
signal attenuation in the atmosphere.
The Cell Shape (3)
The Cell Shape (3)
The Cell Shape (3)
The Cell Shape (3)
The Cell Shape (3)
The Cell Shape (3)
Other cell models

The Call Shape (3)
The Call Shape (3)
The Call Shape (3)
The Call Shape (3)
The Call Shape (4)
• Hexagonal shapes are conceptual.
• For most theoretical treatment,
hexagonal model of cells is universally
adopted because:
-- Hexagons are a geometric shape that
approximates a circle (for omnidirectional
radiation)
-- Using a hexagon geometry, fewest number of
cells can cover the entire geographical region
The Geometry of Hexagons (1)
v
u
w
v
600
u
w
v
600
u
w
D
• Axes u,v intersect at 600
• Unit scale is distance between cell centers
• If cell radius to point of hexagon is R, then 2Rcos300= 1, or
1
R
3
to find the distance of a point P(u,v) from the origin use x y to uv
coordinate transformations:
r 2  x2  y2
x  u cos 30 0
y  v  usen30 0
1
r  (v  uv  u )
2 2 2
• Using this equation, to locate co-channel cells, we start
from a reference cell and move i hexagons along the u axis,
then j hexagons along the v axis.
• Hence the distance between co-channel cells in adjacent

clusters is given by 1
D  (i 2  ij  j 2 ) 2
• The number of cells in a cluster, N is given by
N  i 2  ij  j 2
where I and j are integers
• Hence, the possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 12, …

Example
Co-channel cell location (1)
i
i
i
i
Reuse Ratio
• For hexagonal cells
the reuse distance
is given by
D  3R N
where R is the cell
size and N is the
cluster size.
• The reuse factor is

D
q  3N
R
Recapitulation
• High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of
each base station to a small geographic region called a
cell.
• Same frequencies/time slots/codes are reused by
spatially-separated base stations.
• A switching technique called handoff enables a call to
proceed uninterrupted from one cell to another.
• The hexagonal model of cells is universally adopted.
• For hexagonal cells, the reuse distance is given by
D  3R N
• The reuse factor is given by D
q   3N
R
Cell Capacity and Reuse (1)
• Consider a cellular system with S duplex
channels.
• Suppose each cell is allocated k channels. Let
these S channels be divided among N cells
(cluster). Therefore,
S = kN
• If a cluster of N cells is replicated M times in
the system, the total number of duplex
channels, C, can be used as a measure of the
system capacity
C = MkN = MS
Cell Capacity and Reuse (2)
• If a cluster size N is reduced keeping the cell
size fixed, more clusters are required to cover
the entire area of interest, i.e.,
M↑ → C ↑
• Smaller N (higher capacity) implies larger co

channel interference, which may result in a
lower quality of service (QoS).
Definition of some terms (1)
• Setup Time: The time required to allocate a radio
channel to a requesting user.
• Blocked call: A call that cannot be completed at the
time of request due to the congestion (lost call).
• Holding time: Average duration of a typical call.
• Request rate: The average number of calls per unit
time (λ).
• Traffic intensity: Measure of channel utilization
(Erlangs).
• Load: traffic Intensity across the entire radio system.
• A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as having a
load of one Erlang.
Definition of some terms (2)
• Grade of service (GoS): A measure of the
congestion which is specified as a
probability.
- The probability of a call being blocked
(Erlang B).
- The probability of a call being delayed
(Erlang C)
Traffic Theory (1)
• Average number of MSs requesting service (request s/time)
Average arrival rate = λ
• Average time for which MS requires service
Average holding time = T
• Offered load a = λT (Erlangs)
• E.g., in a cell with 100 MSs on an average 30 requests are
generated during an hour (3600 sec),with average holding
time T = 360 seconds (6 minutes).
• Then, arrival rate λ = 30/3600 requests/second.
• A channel kept busy for an hour is defined as one Erlang.
• Offered load :
30Calls 360Sec
a .  3Erlangs
3600Sec call
Traffic Theory (2)
• Average arrival rate during a short interval t is given by
λt.
• Assuming Poisson distribution of service requests, the
probability P(n, t) for n calls to arrive in an interval of
length t is given by
(  t ) n  t
P(n, t )  e
n!
• Assuming μ to be the service rate, probability of each
call to terminate during interval t is given by μt.
• Thus, probability of a given call requires service for
time t or less is given by
 t
S (t )  1  e
Traffic Theory (3)
• Probability of an arriving call being blocked is
aS 1
B( S , a)  *
S! S
ak Erlang B formula

k  0 k!
where S is the number of channels in a group.
• Probability of an arriving call being delayed is

aS
( S  1)t ( s  a) Erlang C formula
C ( S , a)  s 1
aS a2

( S  1)t ( s  a) t o t!
where C(S, a) is the probability of an arriving call being
delayed with “a” load and “S” channels
Traffic Theory (3)
Traffic Theory: Example 1
• Consider a cell with
S = 2 channels
100 Mobile Stations
generating on an average 30 requests/hour
Average holding time T = 360 seconds (6 minutes)
• Load a = (30 x 6)/60 =3 Erlangs
• Blocking probability, B(S, a) = 0.53
• Total number of rerouted calls = 30 x 0.53 = 16
• Efficiency = 3(1 – 0.53)/2 = 0.7
• Consider a system with
100 cells
Each cell has S = 20 channels
The users average λ = 2 calls/hour
The average duration of each call (T) is 3 min.
• How many number of users can be supported if the
allowed probability of blocking is 2 %?
• Form Erlang B chart, total carried traffic = 13 Erlangs.
• Traffic intensity per user = λT = 0.1 Erlangs
• Total number of users that can be supported per cell =
13/0.1 = 130 users/cell
• Total number of users that can be supported = 13,000
Traffic Theory: Example 2 (cont’d)
• Consider a system with
100 cells
Each cell has S = 20 channels
The users average λ = 2 calls/hour
The average duration of each call (T) is 3 min.
• How many number of users can be supported if the allowed
probability of blocking is 0.2 %?
• Form Erlang B chart, total carried traffic = 10 Erlangs.
• Traffic intensity per user = λT = 0.1 Erlangs
• Total number of users that can be supported per cell = 10/0.1
= 100 users/cell
• Total number of users that can be supported = 10,000
• Consider a system with:
Total number of channels = 20
Probability of blocking constrain = 1%
• Approach 1: Divide 20 channels in 4 trunks of 5
channels.
Traffic capacity for one trunk (5 channels) = 1.36 Erlangs
Traffic capacity for 4 trunks (20 channels) = 5.44 Erlangs
• Approach 2: Divide 20 channels in 2 trunks of 10
channels.
Traffic capacity for 2 trunks (20 channels) = 8.92 Erlangs
• Approach 3: Use the 20 channels as such.
• Allocation of channels has a major impact!
Channel Assignment Strategies
• A scheme for increasing capacity and
minimizing interference is required.
• Channel assignment strategies can be
classified as either fixed or dynamic.
• the choice of the channel assignment strategy
impacts the performance of the system,
particularly how a call is managed when a
mobile user is handed off from one cell to
another.
Fixed Channel Assignment
• Each cell is assigned a predetermined set of voice
channels.
• Any call attempt within the cell can only be
served by the unused channels in that particular
cell.
• If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the call
is blocked. The user does not get service.
• In a variation of the fixed channel assignment, a
cell can borrow channels from its neighboring
cell if its own channels are full.
Dynamic Channel Assignment
• Voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.
• Each time a call request is made, the BS requests
a channel from the MSC.
• MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell
using an algorithm that takes into account
- the likelihood of future blocking.
- the frequency of use of the candidate channel.
- the reuse distance of the channel, and
- other cost functions.
Dynamic Channel Assignment (2)
• To ensure the minimum QoS, the MSC only
allocates a given frequency if that frequency is
not currently in use in the cell, or any other cell
which falls within the limiting reuse distance.
• DCA reduces the likelihood of blocking, thus
increasing the capacity of the system.
• DCA strategies require the MSC to collect real
time data on channel occupancy and traffic
distribution on a continuous basis.
Handoff
• When a mobile moves into a different cell while
the call is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to
the new BS.
• The handoff operation involves identifying a new
BS and the allocation of voice and control signals
associated with the new BS.
• Handoff must be performed successfully, as
infrequently as possible, and must be
imperceptible to the user.
Handoff Region (1)
Handoff Region (1)
By looking at the variation of signal strength from

either base station it is possible to decide on the
optimum area where the handoff can take place.
Handoff Region (1)
BS i

Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j

Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j

Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j
Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j
Signal
Stregth Due
to BS i
Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j
Signal
Stregth Due
to BS i
Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j
Signal
Stregth Due
to BS i Signal
Stregth Due
to BS j
Handoff Region (1)
BS i BS j
Signal
Stregth Due
to BS i Signal
Stregth Due
to BS j
Handoff Region (2)
Handoff Region (3)
• Handoff is made when the received signal at the
base station falls below a pre-specified
threshold.
• In deciding when to handoff, it is important to
ensure that the drop in the signal level is not due
to momentary fading.
• In order to ensure this, the BS monitors the signal
for a certain period of time before initiating
handoff.
• The length of the time needed to decide if
handoff is necessary depends on the speed at
which the mobile is moving.
Handoff Strategies
• In the first generation analog cellular systems,
the signal strength measurements are made by
the BS and are supervised by the MSC.
• In the second generation systems that use the
TDMA technology, Mobile Assisted Handoffs
(MAHO) are used
• In MAHO, every MS measures the received
power from the surrounding BS and continually
report these values to the corresponding BS.
• Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a
neighboring BS exceeds that of the current BS.
Soft Handoff
• CDMA spread spectrum cellular system provides
a unique handoff capability.
• Unlike channelized wireless systems that assign
different radio channel using a handoff (called
hard handoff), the spread spectrum MS share the
same channel in every cell.
• The term handoff here implies that a different BS
handles the radio communication task.
• The ability to select between the instantaneous
received signals from different BSs is called soft
handoff.
Wireless Communications
Interference and System

Capacity
Outline of the Lecture
• Summary of what we have learnt so far.
• Interference
-Co channel
-Adjacent channel
• How to calculate Signal-to-Interference Ratio.

• Examples.
Recapitulation
• Cell capacity and Reuse ↔ As N↓ C↑
• Traffic Theory
-Erlang B formula ↔ Probability of an arriving call being
blocked
-Erlang C formula ↔ Probability of an arriving call being
delayed
• Channel Assignment strategies
-Fixed
-Dynamic
• Handoff strategies
-Hard Handoff
-Soft Handoff
Interference
• Interference is a major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio. It limits capacity
and increases the number of dropped calls.
• Sources of interference include
-another mobile in the same cell,
-a call in progress in a neighboring cell and
-other BS operating in the same frequency band.
• Interference is more severe in the urban areas
due to greater RF noise floor and more number
of MS and BS
The Effect of Interference
• Interference on Voice Channels causes
-Crosstalk
-Noise in the background
• Interference on Control Channels causes
-Error in digital signaling. Which causes
-Missed calls
-Blocked calls
-Dropped calls
More on Interference
• There are two major types of interferences :
-Co channel Interference (CCI)
-Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
• CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the
same frequency set. These cells using the
same frequency set are called co channel
cells.
• ACI is caused due to the signals that are
adjacent in frequency.
Co channel Interference (CCI)
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Mobile
Station
Serving Base
Station
Co channel Interference (CCI) First tier
Co channel
Base
Station
R
D5 D6
D1
D4 D2 Mobile
Station
D3
Serving Base
Station
First tier
Second tier
Co channel
Co channel
Base
Base
Station
Station
R
D5 D6
D1
D4 D2 Mobile
Station
D3
Serving Base
Station
First tier
Second tier
Co channel
Co channel
Base
Base
Station
Station
R
D5 D6
D1
D4 D2 Mobile
Station
D3
Serving Base
Station
CCI (2)
• Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome by
increasing the carrier power of the transmitter.
• This is because any increase in the transmitter
power increases the interference to other co
channel cells (creating our own noise!).
• For similar sized cells, the CCI is independent of
the transmitter power and depends on the cell
radius, R, and the distance to the nearest co
channel cell, D, (the ratio D/R).
• To reduce CCI the co channel cells must be
physically separated.
CCI (3)
• The co channel reuse ratio, Q = D/R.
• It determines the spatial separation relative
to the coverage distance of the cell.
• For a hexagonal cell pattern,
Q  D / R  (3N )
• Thus, a smaller value of Q provides a larger
capacity, but higher CCI.
• Hence there is a trade off between Capacity
and Interference
Calculation of Signal to Interference
Ratio: S/I (1)
• The Signal to Interference ratio (S/I) for a mobile is
S S
 m
I
I
i 1
i
where S is the desired signal power and Ii is the

interference caused by the ith co channel cell.
• The average received power at a distance D is
n
 d 
Pr  P0  
 d0 
where P0 is the received power at a reference distance do
and n is the path loss exponent.
Calculation of S/I (2)
• If Di is the distance of the Ith interferer, the received
power is proportional to (Di)-n .
• The path loss exponent, n, ranges between 2 and 4.
• Thus the S/I for a mobile can be written as
S R n
 m
I
 i(
i 1
D ) n
• For only the first layer of equidistant interferers (m in

all) n
S ( D / R) 3N
 
I m m
Calculation of S/I (3)
• For a hexagonal cluster
of cells
R
D6
 
n
S 1D 1 n
    3N D5
I 6 R  6 MS
D1
• Hence, S/I is D4
independent of the Cell D2
Radius D3
BS
Example (1)
• Design parameters
-Desired S/I = 15 dB
-Path loss exponent, n = 4 (dense urban)
-What is the required reuse factor?
• First try N = 4
D/R = 3.46 S/I = (1/6)(3.46)4 = 24.0 = 13.80 dB
Since this is greater than the desired 15 dB, we must
move to the next higher reuse distance.
• Next try N = 7
D/R = 4.58 S/I = (1/6)(4.58)4 = 73.5 = 18.66 dB
Hence, the required reuse factor = 1/7.
Example (2)
-Path loss exponent, n = 3 (suburban)
-What is the required reuse factor?
• First try N=7

D/R = 4.58 → S/I = (1/6)(4.58)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB
Since this is less than the desired 15 dB, we must move to
the next higher reuse distance.
• Next try N=12

D/R = 6.00 → S/I = (1/6)(6.00)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB
Example (3)
-Path loss exponent, n = 2 (rural)
Example (3)
Example (3)
Worst case calculation of S/I
• The MS is at the cell
boundary
• The approximate S/I is D-R
given by MS
n
D
S R D-R

I 2D  R  n  2D n  2D  R n D+R D
1 D+R

2Q  1  2Q   Q  1
n n n
Worst case calculation of S/I (2)
• Worst case versus average scenario
Average Worst case

18 dB
N=7 N = 12
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
• Results from signals that are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal.
• Results from imperfect receiver filters that
allow nearby frequencies to leak in.
• Problem can be severe if the interferer is
very close to the subscriber's receiver.
ACI (2)
• Near Far effect: When an interferer close to the BS
radiates in the adjacent channel, while the subscriber
is far away from the BS.
ACI(3)
• ACI can be reduced by
-careful filtering
-careful channel assignment
• The frequency separation between each channel
in a cell should be made as large as possible.
• If the subscriber is at a distance d1 and the
interferer is at d2, then Signal-to-Interference
ratio (prior to filtering) is n
S  d1 
  
I  d2 
ACI (4)
• Example: suppose the subscriber is d1= 1000
m from the BS and an adjacent channel
interferer is at d2 = 100 m from the BS.
• Path loss exponent is n = 3.
• Prier to filtering the Signal –to-Interference
ratio will be
n
s  d 1 
3
 1000  3
    10  30dB
I  d 2   100 
ACE (5)
• Example: The frequency separation between each
channel in a cell should be made as large as possible
while assigning them.
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
ACE (5)
Wireless Communication
Improving Coverage and

System Capacity
Outline of this lecture
• Summary of what we have learnt so far
• Improving capacity and coverage
• Power control for interference reduction
• Cell splitting
• Sectoring
• Microcell zone
• Use of repeaters
Recapitulation
• Cell capacity and Reuse ↔ As N↓ C↑
• Types of Interference
• Co channel Interference
• Co channel Interference calculations
• Average case
• Worst case
• Adjacent channel interference
Power Control to Reduce Interference
• In practical systems, the power level of every
subscriber is under constant control by the
serving BS.
• Power control not only reduces interference
levels but also prolongs battery life.
• In CDMA spread spectrum systems, power
control is a key feature to ensure maximal
utilization of the system capacity.
• Reduced interference leads to higher
capacity.
Improving Capacity
• As the demand for service increases, system
designers have to provide more channels per
unit coverage area.
• Common techniques are: Cell Splitting, Sectoring
and Microcell Zoning.
• Cell splitting increases the number of BS
deployed and allows an orderly growth of the
cellular system.
• Sectoring uses directional antennas for further
control interference and frequency reuse.
• Microcell Zoning distributes the coverage of a cell
and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach
places.
Cell Splitting (1)
• Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a
congested cell into smaller cells with
• their own BS
• a corresponding reduction in the antenna height
• a corresponding reduction in the transmitter power
• Splitting the cells reduces the cell size and thus
more number of cells have to be used.
• More number of cells → more number of clusters
→ more channels → higher capacity.
• Cell splitting allows a system to grow by replacing
large cells by small cells, without upsetting the
channel allocation.
Cell Splitting (2)
Large cell (low density)
Cell Splitting (2)
Small cell (high density)

Cell Splitting (2)
Small cell (high density)
Smaller cell (higher

density)
• Cells are split to add channels with no new spectrum usage.

• Depending on traffic patterns the smaller cells may be
activated/deactivated in order to efficiently use cell
resources.
Example (1)
4 cell cluster
7 cell cluster
smaller cell
7 cell cluster
12 cell cluster
• Typical city cellular radio cell plan – different cell sizes and clusters
Example (2)
• Suppose the cell radius of the new cells are reduced by half.
• What is the required transmit power for these new cells?
n
• We have Pr(old cell boundary) = PTi R
n
R
Pr(new cell boundary) = PTi  
2
Pri
PTi  n
2
• For n = 3, Pri
PTi 
8
• Thus, the transmit power of new cells should be 9 dB lower
than the original transmit power.
Example (3)
• Suppose the congested service
area is originally covered by
• 5 cells,
• each cell with 80 channels,
• Capacity = 5 x 80 = 400
• After cell splitting, Rnew = R/2

Example (3)
• Suppose the congested service
area is originally covered by
• 5 cells,
• each cell with 80 channels,
• Capacity = 5 x 80 = 400
• After cell splitting, Rnew = R/2

• Now we have 24 cells
• New capacity = 24 x 80 = 19200
• For n = 4, the transmit power

for the new BS = 12 dB lower.
Cell Sectoring (1)
• As opposed to cell splitting, where D/R is kept
constant while decreasing R, sectoring keeps R
untouched and reduces D/R.
• Capacity improvement is achieved by reducing
the number of cells per cluster, thus
increasing frequency reuse.
• In order to do this, it is necessary to reduce
the relative interference without decreasing
the transmitter power.
Cell Sectoring (2)
• The CCI may be decreased by replacing the single
omnidirectional antenna by several directional
antennas, each radiating within a specified
sector.
• A directional antenna transmits to and receives
from only a fraction of the total number of co
channel cells. Thus CCI is reduced.
• A cell is normally partitioned into three 1200
sectors, four 900 sectors or six 600 sector.
Cell Sectoring (3)
(a) Omni
Cell Sectoring (3)
(a) Omni
Cell Sectoring (3)
c
1200
a
b
(a) Omni (b) 1200 sector

Cell Sectoring (3)
c c
1200
a
b b a
(a) Omni (b) 1200 sector (c) 1200 sector

(alternate)
Cell Sectoring (5)
• Problems with sectoring
• Increased number of antennas at each BS
• Decreased in trunking efficiency due to sectoring
(dividing the bigger pool of channels into smaller
groups)
• Increased number of hand-offs (sector –to-sector).
• Good news: Many modern BS support sectoring and
related handoff without the help of the MSC
Microcell Zone Concept (1)
• The problems of sectoring can be addressed by
the Microcell Zone concept.
• A cell is divided into microcells or zones.
• Each microcell (zone) is connected to the same
base station (fiber/microwave link).
• Each zone uses a directional antenna.
• As a mobile travels from one zone to another, it
retains the same channel, i.e; no hand-off.
• The BS simple switches the channel to the next
zone site.
Wireless Communication
Mobile Radio Propagation

Introduction
• The mobile radio channel places fundamental
limitations on the performance of wireless
communication systems.
• The wireless transmission path may be

Line of Sight (LOS)
Non Line of Sight (NLOS): obstructed by buildings,
foliage, etc,
• Radio channels are random and often time varying.
• Modeling radio channels have been one of the difficult

parts of the mobile radio system design.
Propagation Basics
• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic
waves that can propagate through space.
• By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to an

electrical circuit, the electromagnetic waves can be
broadcast efficiently and received by a receiver some
distance away.
• The radio, microwave, infrared, and visible light

portions of the electromagnetic spectrum can all be
used to transmit information.
• Information can be sent by modulating the amplitude,

frequency or phase of the waves.
Properties of Radio Waves
• Are easy to generate
• Can travel long distances
• Can penetrate buildings
• May be used for both indoor and outdoor communication
• Are Omni-directional – can travel in all directions
• Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies (greater than

100MHz) using parabolic antennas (like satellite dishes)
Properties of Radio Waves (2)
• Frequency dependence
Behave more like light at higher frequencies
Difficulty in passing obstacles
More direct paths (straight line paths)
Absorbed by rain
Behave more like radio at lower frequencies
Can pass obstacles
Power falls off sharply with distance from source
`
• Subject to interference from other radio
wave sources
Mobile Radio Propagation: Basics (1)
At VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio
waves follow the ground.
AM radio broadcasting uses MF
band
•At HF bands, the ground waves

tend to be absorbed by the earth.
•The waves that reach ionosphere

(100-500 km above earth surface),
are reflected and sent back to
absorption
earth.
VHF Transmission
LOS path
Reflected Wave
•Directional antennas are used

•Waves follow more direct paths
•LOS: Line-of –sight communication
•Reflected wave interfere with the original signal
• Modeling the radio channel is typically done in a
statistical manner.
• The statistical modeling is usually done based on
measurement data made specifically for
• the intended communication system
• the intended spectrum
• However, at higher frequencies (>10 GHz),
deterministic modeling is used as modeling starts
failing.
• By playing with the antenna (tilting and changing the
height), coverage area can be controlled.
Antenna basics (1)
• The free space received power is given by the
Friis free space equation
PG G  2
Pr  d   t t r
 4 
2 2
d L
Antenna basics (1)
Transmitter Receiver
• The free spaceAntenna
received power is given by
Antenna the
Gain Gain
Friis free space equation
Received PG G  2
Power Pr  d   t t r System loss

 4 
2 2
d L factor
Transmitted
Power Transmitter
Receiver
separation
Antenna basics (1)
• The free space received power is given by the Friis free space
equation
PG G  2
Pr  d   t t 2 r 2
 4  d L
• the gain of an antenna G is related to its effective aperture Ae
by 4 Ae
G
2
• The effective aperture, Ae is related to the physical size of the
antenna.
• λ is related to the carrier frequency by λ = c/f
• Higher the frequency, higher the gain for the same size
antenna
Antenna basics (2)
• An Isotropic Radiator is an ideal antenna that radiates with
unit gain uniformly in all directions. It is as the reference
antenna in wireless systems.
• The Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is defined as

EIRP=PtGt
• The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the radiated power

in comparison to the half-wave dipole antenna.
• Since a dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB)

ERP=EIRP-2.15 (dB)
• In practice antenna gains are given in the units of dBi (dB

gain with respect to an isotropic source).
Antenna basics (3)
• The path loss represents the signal attenuation as a positive
quantity, and is represented dB.
Pt  G G 2 
PL(dB)  10log  10log  t r2 2 
Pr   4  d 
• When the antenna gains are excluded
Pt  2 
PL(dB)  10log  10log  2 2
Pr   4  d 
• The Friis free space model is valid in the far field or the
Fraunhofer region.
2D2
• The fraunhofer distance is defined as df 

where D is the largest physical dimension of the antenna.
• Additionally, we must have df ›› D y df ›› λ
Antenna basics (4)
• The Friss free space equation does not hold for d=0.
• Hence, we must use a close-in power reference at a
distance d0.
• The reference distance is chosen such that
d0 ≥ df
• Thus,
• Sometimes, we define the received power with

reference to 1 milli-watt as
 Pr d 0    d0 
Pr d dBm  10 log    20 log  
 0.001W  d 
Example
• What will be the far field distance for a Base
Station antenna with
Largest antenna dimension D= 0.5 m
Frequency of operation f1=900 MHz
Frequency of operation f2=1,800 MHz
• For 900 MHz
2D2
λ = (3x108/900x106)=0.33 m df  = 1.5 m

• For 1,800 MHz
2D2
λ = (3x108/1,800x106)=0.17 m df  = 3.0 m

Antenna basics (5)
Power flow at a distance d due to an ideal (point) antenna

Antenna basics (5)
Example
For a BS, let Pt = 10 W, fc = 900 MHZ, Gt = 2, Gr = 1
The MS is at a distance of 5 km
What is the received power in dBm?
 Pt Gt Gr 2   10 x2 x1x * (0.33) 2 
Pr (d )  10 log  2 2 
  10 log  2 

 (4 ) d   (4 ) x(5000) 
2
Pr(d=5000m) = -92.5 dBW = = 62.6 dBm

Antenna basics (5)
Example 2
For a GSM BS, let Pt = 500 mW, fc = 900 MHZ, Gt =
2, Gr = 1
The MS is at a distance of 10 km
What is the received power in dBm?
 Pt Gt Gr 2   0.5 x2 x1x * (0.33) 2 

Pr (d )  10 log  2 2 
  10 log  2 

 (4 ) d   (4 ) x(10000) 
2
Pr(d=10000m) = -111.6 dBW = = -81.6 dBm

GSM receiver sensitivity < -100 dBm
Radio Propagation Mechanisms (1)
Reflection
Radio Propagation
Mechanisms
Diffraction Scattering
Radio Propagation Mechanisms (2)
• Reflection occurs when the electromagnetic wave
impinges on an object which has very large
dimensions as compared to the wavelength, e. g., the
surface of the earth, buildings, walls, etc.
• Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the

transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that
has sharp irregularities (edges).
Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments
without a line of sight path.
• Scattering occurs when the medium has objects that

are smaller or comparable to the wavelength (small
objects, rough surfaces, and other irregularities on the
channel).
Reflection
• Occurs when a radio wave propagating in one medium
impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties.
• If the radio wave is incident on a perfect dielectric

о part of the energy is reflected back
о part of the energy is transmitted
• The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted

waves can be related by the Fresnel coefficient (Γ).
• If incident on a perfect conductor, the entire energy is

reflected back.
Polarization
• In general, electromagnetic waves are polarized,
i.e.,
They have instantaneous electric field components in orthogonal
directions in space.
• A polarized wave can be represented as a sum of

two spatially orthogonal components
Vertical or horizontal
Left hand or right hand circularly polarized
• Polarization can also be used as a degree of

freedom for frequency planning.
Reflection from Dielectrics
Reflection Coefficient
Reflection from Perfect Conductors
• Electromagnetic energy cannot pass through perfect
conductors (can be used for shielding)
• All energy is reflected back.
• Thus we have
i  r
Ei  E r (E field in plane of incidence)
E   E  (E field normal plane to incidence)
  1and  1
Ground Reflection model (1)
• In line of sight (LOS) scenarios the reflection
from the ground is also important.
• A two-ray reflection model is often used.
• This model is reasonably accurate for
predicting large scale signal strength over
several kilometers.
• Assumption: the height of the transmitter >
50 meters.
Base Station
ht - hr
d’
d’’
ht + hr
d
ht -hr d’
Path Difference
d’’
2ht hr
  d ' 'd '  (ht  hr )  d  (ht  hr )  d 
2 2 2 2
d
ht -hr d’
Path Difference
d’’
2ht hr
  d ' 'd '  (ht  hr )  d  (ht  hr )  d 
2 2 2 2
d
Phase Difference    2

 d 
Time Delay  d  
c 2f c
ht -hr d’
Path Difference
d’’
2ht hr
  d ' 'd '  (ht  hr )  d  (ht  hr )  d 
2 2 2 2
d
Phase Difference    2 2
  ht hr 
 d  Pr  Pt Gt Gr  2 
Time Delay  d    d 
c 2f c
Diffraction
• Occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).
• Explains how radio signals can travel urban

and rural environments without a line of
sight path.
• Diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s

principle: all points on a wavefront can be
considered as point sources for the
production of secondary wavelets.
Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry

Wireless Communications

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Wireless Communications

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Wireless

-the information from sender to receiver is carried

-each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and

-different channels can be used to transmit information

• Different freqs get attenuated differently by air

His work established the theoretical foundation for

• Consumers and businesses are willing to pay for it

• Basic mantra: Stay connected – anywhere, anytime

• Efficient use of finite radio spectrum

• Maintaining quality of service over

• Connectivity and coverage

• Higher probability of data corruption

• Need for stronger security mechanisms

• Wireless systems may be

• Different orbit heights

• Optimized for one way transmission

• Expensive base station (satellites)

• Iridium, Globalstar, Teledesic, Inmarsat are some

• The capacity of such networks is generally unknown.

• Transmission, access, and routing strategies for these

• Cross layer design critical and very challenging.

• Energy constraints impose interesting design tradeoffs

Energy is the driving constraint

• Packet loss and/or delays impacts controller performance.

• The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high

• Constraint: there should not be severe performance

• The FCC and RCC are also called setup channels.

• It monitors that channel until it drops below a

• Control channels are defined and standardized

• The MS receives the paging message from the BS

• The BS conveys the handshake to the MSC. The

• A data message (called alert) is transmitted over

• All of these sequence of events occur in just a few

• While the call is in progress, the MSC adjusts the

• Along with this, the MS transmits its MIN, Electronic

• The MS also transmits the Station Class Mark (SCM)

• The BS forwards the data to the MSC, which validates the

• Suppose we give every household their own allocation

• 1 million households (Sto Dgo) x 4 KHz = 4 GHz!

• Each base station is allocated a group of radio

• Neighboring base stations are given different

• The design procedure of allocating channel

Ideal signal strength/cell coverage

Signal strength contour indicating actual cell coverage.

Other cell models

• Hence the distance between co-channel cells in adjacent

• The number of cells in a cluster, N is given by

• Hence, the possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 12, …

• The reuse factor is

• Smaller N (higher capacity) implies larger co

• Probability of an arriving call being delayed is

By looking at the variation of signal strength from

By looking at the variation of signal strength from

By looking at the variation of signal strength from

By looking at the variation of signal strength from

Interference and System

• How to calculate Signal-to-Interference Ratio.

where S is the desired signal power and Ii is the

• For only the first layer of equidistant interferers (m in

• First try N=7

• Next try N=12

Average Worst case

Improving Coverage and

Small cell (high density)