2 Mitosis and

Meiosis

Lecture Presentations by
Cindy Malone
California State University, Northridge

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Chapter 2 Contents

2.1 Cell Structure Is Closely Tied to Genetic Function

2.2 Chromosomes Exist in Homologous Pairs in Diploid
Organisms
2.3 Mitosis Partitions Chromosomes into Dividing Cells
2.4 Meiosis Creates Haploid Gametes and Spores and
Enhances Genetic Variation in Species
2.5 The Development of Gametes Varies in Spermatogenesis
Compared to Oogenesis
2.6 Meiosis Is Critical to the Sexual Reproduction in All Diploid
Organisms
2.7 Electron Microscopy Has Revealed the Physical Structure
of Mitotic and Meiotic Chromosomes
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Chapter 2 Introduction

 All living organisms contain genetic material made

of the nucleic acid DNA (except viruses).
 An organism’s DNA, with an array of genes, is
organized into structures called chromosomes.
 In eukaryotes, genetic continuity/transmission of
genetic material from one generation to the next
involves mitosis and meiosis.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Chapter 2 Introduction

 Mitosis leads to production of two cells, each with

the same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell (2n).
 Meiosis reduces genetic content and leads to
production of sex gametes, which contain half the
number of chromosomes (n).
 Chromosomes are visible as condensed structures
during mitosis and meiosis called chromatin.
 Uncoiled chromosomes, chromatin, form a diffuse
network within the nucleus.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Chapter 2 Introduction

 Differences in cell structure

– There are two main types of cells:
 Prokaryotic
– Nonnucleated
– Bacteria and archaea
 Eukaryotic
– Nucleated
– Protists, plants, fungi, animals

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 2.1 Cell Structure Is Closely Tied to
Genetic Function

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 Electron microscopy allowed scientists to see the

cell in its highly organized structure (Figure 2-1).
– Form and function of structures are dependent on
genetic expression.
– Cell components directly or indirectly involved with
genetic processes are the nucleolus, ribosome,
and centriole.
– Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own
unique genetic information.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-1

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane,

which
– Defines cell boundary
– Delimits cell from its environment
 Plant cells
– Have outer covering in addition to plasma membrane
(cell wall)
– Are composed of polysaccharide (cellulose)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 Animal cells
– Surrounded by cell coat (glycocalyx)
 Made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides
 Differs in chemical composition from plants and
bacteria
 Provides biochemical identity at cell surface
– Cell-surface markers include: AB, Rh, MN antigens,
receptor molecules—recognition sites.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 Eukaryotic organisms
– Membrane-bound nucleus contains DNA complexed
with proteins into thin fibers (chromatin).
 Contains nucleolus
– rRNA synthesized and initially assembled
– NOR: nucleolus organizer region; portions of DNA that
encode rRNA
– During mitosis and meiosis, chromatin fibers coil and
condense to form chromosomes.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 Prokaryotic organisms
– Cells lack nuclear envelope and membranous
organelles.
 Genetic material
– Long, circular DNA molecule compacted into
nucleoid area (Figure 2-2)
– DNA not as extensively associated with proteins—
does not undergo compaction like eukaryotic cells
– Prokaryotic cells lack distinct nucleolus but do
contain genes for rRNA synthesis.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-2

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 Eukaryotic cell contents

– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Ribosomes
– Mitochondria
– Chloroplast (plant, algae, protozoa)
– Centrioles
– Centrosome

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1

 Eukaryotic cell: Cytoplasm

– Cell is enclosed by cell membrane, excluding
nucleus, composed of cytoplasm and all associated
cellular organelles.
– Includes variety of extranuclear cellular organelles

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Membranous endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – lipid

and protein synthesizer
– Organelle compartmentalizes cytoplasm to increase
surface area.
– Smooth ER: site of lipid (fatty acid) synthesis
– Rough ER: studded with ribosomes: site of protein
synthesis

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.1 Mitochondria and Chloroplast

 Mitochondria
– Site of ATP synthesis
– Site of oxidative phases of cell respiration
– Found in both plant and animal cells
 Chloroplasts
– Site of photosynthesis
– Found in plants, algae, and some protozoans
 Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA
distinct from that found in nucleus: similar to
prokaryotic DNA.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Section 2.1

 Centrioles: cytoplasmic bodies located in

centrosome
– Found in animal and plant cells
– Centrioles organize spindle fibers for movement of
chromosomes during meiosis and mitosis.
 Spindle fibers: composed of microtubules
consisting of polymers of protein tubulin

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 2.2 Chromosomes Exist in
Homologous Pairs in Diploid
Organisms

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.2

 Chromosomes contain a constricted region called a

centromere.
– Location of centromere gives general appearance of
chromosome (Figure 2-3).
– Metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, and
telocentric.
– Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs in diploid
organisms (Figure 2-4).

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-3

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.2

 Haploid number (n)

– Half of diploid number: constitutes genome of
species (Table 2.1)
 Homologous chromosomes (one of each)
– One chromosome of paternal origin (via the sperm)
and the other of maternal origin (via the egg)
 Karyotype
– Figure 2-4: human mitotic chromosomes

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 2-1

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-4

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.2

 Homologous chromosomes have identical gene

sites (locus).
 Allele: alternative forms of the same gene
 Sex-determining chromosomes are not
homologous.
– Females are XX.
– Males are XY.
– Figure 2-4

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.2

 Somatic cells (body cells) are present as

homologous pairs.
– Humans: 46 chromosomes (23 homologous pairs)
– Represent diploid number 2n
 Exceptions
– Many bacteria and viruses have one chromosome.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 2.3 Mitosis Partitions Chromosomes
into Dividing Cells

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3

 Mitosis: cell division

– Single-celled fungi, protozoa, and algae: serves as
basis for asexual reproduction
– Multicellular organisms: responsible for wound
healing, cell replacement, and growth
– Zygote: single-celled fertilized egg
 Mitosis: genetic material evenly divided into two
nuclei (karyokinesis – includes PMAT), followed
by cytoplasmic division, cytokinesis

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Interphase and Cell Cycle
(Karyokinesis)
 Interphase and the Cell Cycle
– Cell cycle composed of interphase (G1, S, G2) and
mitosis (Figure 2-5)
– Interphase: interval between divisions – prior to PMAT
 S phase occurs in nucleus where DNA is duplicated.
 G1 and G2 occur in cytoplasm.
– By end of G2, cell has doubled in size (DNA
duplicated, mitosis initiated).
 G0: point in G1 phase where cells withdraw from cell
cycle and enter nondividing but metabolically active
state
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 2-5

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3

 Mitosis has discrete stages (Figure 2-7):

– Prophase
– Prometaphase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-7

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Prophase

 Prophase
– Chromosomes condense. -> from not condensed
chromatin
– Centrioles (in animal cells only) divide and move to
opposite ends of cell.
– Nuclear envelope breaks down, nucleolus
disintegrates, chromosomes condense and become
visible.
 Sister chromatids are visibly connected at the
centromere.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Cohesin, Separase, and Shugoshin

 Cohesin
– Protein complex that holds sister chromatids
together
 Separase
– Enzyme that degrades cohesin
 Shugoshin
– Protein that protects cohesin from being degraded by
separase

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Prometaphase/Metaphase

 Prometaphase
– Chromosomes move to metaphase plate of cell.
– Spindle fibers bind to kinetochore region (protein
layers) and move the chromosomes.
 Metaphase
– Centromeres/chromosomes are aligned at the
metaphase plate.
– Figure 2-8

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-8

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Anaphase

 Anaphase
– Centromeres split and sister chromatids separate
from each other (disjunction); they are no longer
chromatids but daughter chromosomes.
 92 human chromosomes
– Chromosomes migrate to opposite poles (shortest
stage of mitosis).
 46 chromosomes migrate to opposite ends.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Telophase

 Telophase: final stage of mitosis with two complete

sets of chromosome, one set at each pole
– Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm.
– Chromosomes uncoil.
– Nuclear envelope re-forms.
– Spindle fibers disappear and nucleolus re-forms.
– Cell enters interphase.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Cell-Cycle Regulation

 Cell cycle is genetically regulated.

 Disruption of regulation can lead to uncontrolled cell
division characterizing malignancy.
 Mutations exert effect during cell cycle.
 Kinases serve as “master control” molecules.
 Cyclins (proteins) bind with kinases  activating
them at appropriate times during cell cycle.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.3 Cell-Cycle Checkpoints

 Three major checkpoints “checked” by master

control molecules before next stage (G1, G2, M).
 If checkpoints fail to recognize and stop errors, cell
division proceeds and tumor results.
 If cell cycle is arrested at checkpoints, cell is
removed from population of dividing cells,
preventing potential malignancy.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 2.4 Meiosis Creates Haploid Gametes
and Spores and Enhances Genetic
Variation in Species

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Meiosis

 Meiosis produces gametes.

– Reduces amount of genetic material by one-half
– Produces haploid gametes or spores containing one
member of each homologous pair
– Fertilization restores diploid number.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Meiosis

 Meiosis
– Maintains genetic continuity from generation to
generation
– Gives rise to genetic variation in gametes through:
 Crossing over of homologous chromosomes
 Unique combinations of maternal/paternal
chromosomes

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Meiosis

 Meiosis
– Two divisions required to reach haploidy
– Meiosis I: reductional division
– Meiosis II: equational division
– Meiosis I and II each have prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase stages.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-9

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-10-1

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-10-2

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Meiosis – Prophase I

 Prophase I: first meiotic division

 Diploid cell duplicates its genetic material.
 Meiosis is similar to mitotic prophase, except
homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis).
– Figure 2-9
 End of prophase I
– Centromeres are present on the equatorial plate.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Synapsis and Chiasma

 Synapsis
– Gives rise to tetrad (two pairs of sister chromatids)
– Chiasma: chromatids are still intertwined.
– Exchange of genetic material (paternal/maternal
chromosomes) through recombination
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus break down, and
two centromeres of tetrad attach to spindle fibers.
 After prophase I, steps similar to mitosis occur.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Metaphase I

 Metaphase I
– Chromosomes are at maximum shortness and
thickness. (very fat)
– Terminal chiasmata hold nonsister chromatids
together.
– Binding to spindle fibers moves chromatids to
metaphase plate.
– Alignment of tetrads is random.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Anaphase I

 Anaphase I
– Homologous chromosomes separate.
– Nondisjunction may occur—separation not achieved.
 Disjunction: half of each tetrad (dyad) is randomly
pulled to opposite poles.
 At the end of anaphase I, number of dyads equals
haploid number present at poles.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 Telophase I

 Telophase I
– Reappearance of nuclear membrane and short
interphase
– Chromosomes do not replicate, since they already
consist of sister chromatids.
– Each cell is now haploid (n).

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.4 The Second Meiotic Division

 Prophase II: chromosomes are composed of one

pair of sister chromatids attached by common
centromere.
 Metaphase II: centromere is positioned at
metaphase plate.
 Anaphase II: centromeres divide; sister chromatids
are pulled to opposite poles.
 Telophase II: one member of each homologous
chromosome is at each pole.
 Cytokinesis: four haploid gametes result from a
single mitotic event.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 2.5 The Development of Gametes
Varies during Spermatogenesis
Compared to Oogenesis

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.5

 There are differences in production of a male

gamete (spermatogenesis) and a female gamete
(oogenesis) (Figure 2-11).
 Spermatogenesis takes place in the testes.
(seminiferous tubules)
 Oogenesis takes place in the ovaries.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-11

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.5 Spermatogenesis

 Spermatogenesis
– Begins when undifferentiated spermatogonium
germ cell enlarges to become primary
spermatocyte
– Primary spermatocyte undergoes first mitotic
division; produces haploid secondary
spermatocytes.
– Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II.
 Produce two haploid spermatids
 Undergo developmental changes, spermiogenesis
 Become motile spermatozoa or sperm
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Section 2.5 Oogenesis

 Oogenesis: formation of ova in ovaries

– Oogonium, undifferentiated germ cell, enlarges to
become primary oocyte.
– Two meiotic divisions produce daughter cells.
 Receive equal amounts of genetic material
 Do not receive equal amounts of cytoplasm
– Secondary oocyte receives bulk of cytoplasm.
 Polar body: cell with little or no cytoplasm

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.5

 Secondary oocyte undergoes secondary division.

– Divides unequally
– Produces two haploid cells: an ootid with bulk of
cytoplasm and a second polar body.
– First polar body may or may not divide.
 Ootid differentiates into mature ovum.
 Secondary division is completed after fertilization.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 2.6 Meiosis Is Critical to the Sexual
Reproduction in All Diploid
Organisms

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.6 Successful Sexual Reproduction

 Meiosis is critical to successful sexual reproduction

of diploid organisms.
– Produces haploid gametes in animals
– Produces haploid spores in plants that turn into
gametes
 Diploid organisms store genetic information in the
form of homologous pairs of chromosomes.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.6 Crossing Over

 Crossing over
– During first meiotic prophase
– Further reshuffles alleles between homologous
maternal and paternal chromosomes
– Chromosomes segregate and assort independently
into gametes.
– Results in great amount of genetic variability

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.6 Meiosis in Plants and Fungi

 Meiosis plays a significant role in plant and fungi life

cycle.
 In fungi
– Predominant stage of life cycle consists of haploid
vegetative cells; arise through meiosis and
proliferate through mitosis.
 In multicellular plants
– Life cycles alternate between diploid sporophytic
stage and haploid (gametophyte stage).

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 2.7 Electron Microscopy Has
Revealed the Physical Structure of
Mitotic and Meiotic Chromosomes

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.7

 Electron microscopy revealed that

– Dispersed chromatin fibers are present in nucleus
during interphase (Figure 2-12a)
– Fibers coil, fold, and condense during mitosis
(Figure 2-12b)
– Chromatin is condensed to produce a mitotic
chromosome (Figure 2-12c)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 2-12

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Section 2.7 Folded-fiber Model

 Electron microscopic observations of metaphase

chromosomes led to folded-fiber model.
– Figure 2-12c
 Geneticists believe in the presence of 5000-fold
compaction in length of DNA within chromatin fiber.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.