Grace Choi , Chesarah Cordova

Grade11 science
Sir. Gail Tolentino
Learn how the sediments move and
transform.
Understand the continental drift theory.
Understand the concept of plate
tectonics.
To understand how sediments were
involved in the evolution of Earth.
Natural substances consisting of
aggregate minerals clumped together
with other Earth materials through
natural processes.
Products of a natural cyclic process
 1. Igneous rocks (Latin word ignis : fire )
* Crystallized from magma or molten or partially
molten volcanic materials
* Magma : rises from the asthenosphere or at the
base of the crust through volcanoes or any cracks
and fissures on Earth’s surface.
* When it reaches the surface of Earth, the molten
volcanic material is called lava.

Gabbro

Diorite
 Intrusive
* the rocks which are cooled inside the
volcano

 Extrusive
* the rocks which are cooled outside
the volcano
2. Sedimentary rocks ( sediments: remaining
particles)
* Form the deposition of different minerals on Earth’s surface.
* Comes from preexisting rocks or pieces of dead organisms
that have been “lithified” or cemented together by natural
processes.
* Show distinct layering or bedding on the surface.
* Found in rivers, oceans where sand, mud and other types of
sediments are present
* Preserve or record the kind of environment that existed when
they were being formed
* Scientists use these rocks to learn about the climate and
environment that changed through Earth’s history.
* fossils
Conglomerate

Hematite
3. Metamorphic rocks (meta: change
morph: form)
* Derives from igneous or sedimentary rocks that
were exposed to high pressure, high temperature, or
both, deep below the surface of Earth.
* Due to these exposures, some of the minerals in
these rocks undergo chemical and physical changes.
 diagram that shows the continuous
succession of how rocks form, break
down, and reform.
1. Exogenous processes ( external )
*occur on or near the surface of earth
*usually influenced by gravity, water, wind
and organisms
* can be destructive occurrence that
leave significant changes on the
landscape and ecosystem of an area
* In extreme cases, this process can wipe
out the area.
1. Weathering
* disintegration of rocks, soil and minerals together
with other materials through contact with Earth’s
subsystems.
* can happen without movement or transportation.
* The breaking down of soil and rocks happen in situ
or on the spot.
A. Physical weathering
*break down of rocks by mechanical forces
concentrated along rock fractures.
*can occur due to changes whether sudden or not,
in temperature, pressure etc.

B. Chemical weathering
* break down of rocks by chemical reactions.
* in this process, new or secondary minerals develop
and sometimes replace the original properties of
the minerals in the original rock or soil.
* oxidation( the reaction of a substance with
oxygen ) , hydrolysis ( the chemical breakdown of a
substance when combined with water) and acid
rain are the contributors
2. Erosion
* process by which Earth’s surface is worn away by
wind, water or ice.
* moves rock debris or soil from one place to
another.
Erosion occurs because of..
• rainfall • deforestation
• flooding • over grazing
• movement of land animals • mining
during migration or stampede
3. Mass wasting
* movement of large masses of materials down a
slope or sleep-sided hill or mountain due to pull of
gravity
* very destructive in areas with increased water flow
A. Debris flow
*Happens when a large amount of sediments fall down the
slope.
* Does not require water to flow down
B. Mudflow
* When combined soil and water flow down a slope.
* Happens near rivers or streams where soil or sand is
always moist.
* Weight of the mud flow indicates the severity of risk when
it flows down a community.
C. Slump
* Slow movement of soil along a curved surface
* It looks curved because of the depression formed by the
sinking land
4. Sedimentation
* Accumulation of materials such as soil, rock
fragments, and soil particles setting on the ground.
* Occurs in streams and sea erosion.
* As time passes, the sediment load becomes thick
and forms a new layer of ground
* In some small inlands waters, this sediment layer
can form the ocean basin.
2. Endogenous process (interior)
* take place within or in the inferior of Earth.
* are responsible for earthquakes, development of
continents, mountain building, volcanic activities,
and other movements related to Earth’s crust.
 1.Magmatism – happens when magma is
generated and develops into igneous rocks.
The process can take place either under the
surface or on the surface of earth.
2. Volcanism (or Plutonism) – is the process
that usually happens after magma is
formed.
3. Metamorphism – is the process of
changing the materials that make up a rock.
1. Compressional
* Rocks push or squeeze against one another.
* The stress produced is directed toward the center.
* This usually takes place in folding, which result in
mountain building.
2. Tensional
* rocks are pulled apart
* may separate in opposite directions or more farther
away.
* responsible for the separation of all the continents
in the world.
3. Shear
* some of the portions f a plate at the edges may
break away in different directions and make the
plate smaller in size.
• In 1596, Abraham Ortelius, a Flemish cartographer,
observe and that the shapes of the continents on
both sides of Atlantic Ocean seem to fit together.
• Africa, Asia and Europe seemed to be one.
• Ortelius said earthquakes and flooding probably
separated the continents.
• Alfred Wegner
* the scientist who proposed the Continental Drift
Theory in the early twentieth century
* His hypothesis proposed that the continents had
once been joined, and over time had drifted apart.
* Called the massive landmass, pangaea
1. Similarity of fossils found in different continents
*a lot of similar plant and animal fossils were found in
continents that are presently far.
2. Presence of tillites in areas of whose present climates
do not suggest glacial formation
*tillites are glacial deposits from rock starta that were
once covered by snow. However, tillites are also found
in tropical areas.
3. Presence of coal seems in polar regions
*coals that are supposed to be found in warm areas are
found in polar regions.
4. Continuity of rock layers found in different
continents
* there are similarities in rock layers found in
mountains that are opposite sides of the Atlantic
Ocean.
5.Similarity of rock types in different continents
* Rock types found in Brazil, India, South Africa and
Antarctica seem to have similar layers and
sequence.
* shows that all these places shared the same
environment.
• Arthur Holmes (1890-1965) ( British Geologist )
* made two major contributions to the
understanding of geology pioneered the use of
minerals and was the first earth scientist to grasp
the mechanical and thermal implications of mantle
convection, which led eventually to the acceptance
of plate tectonics.
1. Convergent (collisional) boundaries, where plates meet
* 2 tectonic plates move toward each other brought by
mantle convection
* two types of possible landforms
a. Trench: formed from subduction, where denser
plates sink
b. Mountain range: neither plate is subducted,
but instead, crumples.
2. Divergent Boundaries
* where plates move away from each other
* plates move apart because of the magma that
is being pushed upwards in boundaries

3. Transform Boundaries
* plates move away from each other
* neither plates get subducted
1. Folding
* Type of earth movement resulting from the
compression of rock strata.
* Bending, curving, crumpling or buckling of
rocks into folds usually visible on rock strata.
ex) Himalaya mountain
* It may also occur in oceans and in seas
* Compressional forces are strong enough to
move ocean sediments to higher or lower
elevation of folds
2. Faulting
* movement that forms cracks or
fractures in rocks.
* Fault lines: a line on a rock surface or
the ground that traces a geological fault
* Block mountains: mountains form from
faulting that have sharp peaks
Harold Hess and Robert Dietz
Professor of geology and Marine
geologist (1960-1961)
 * developed the seafloor spreading how it
aligned with the then unaccepted ideas of
continental drift.
* sea floor spreading is continual process when
tensional forces where tensional forces on both
sides of the plates cause them to constantly
move apart.
1. Relative dating
*method used to determine the relative order of
geologic events.
* done through stratigraphy (succession of rocks)
* estimated based on the profile of the starta which
includes chemical composition, rock type, and
pressure organisms
2. Absolute dating -
* can tell which sediments were deposited first and
the approximate age of the specimen.
* radioactive decay dating: the most used form of
radiometry
• Formed from a series of processes
beginning with a separation of two
diverging plates.