Biogeochemical Cycles

• 20 essential inorganic elements for living

organisms.
• Unlike energy - essentially no input of
inorganic nutrients
• Essential elements present in finite amounts
– recycled from dead tissue and wastes
Earth’s ecosystems are maintained by a
constant influx of energy

Transformation Loss of Energy

Solar
Autotroph Herbivore
Energy Carnivore

Respiratory Loss
 Biogeochemical Cycles
Cycling of chemical elements
between living and non-living
portions of the earth’s ecosystems

Decomposition
Respiration Biotic
Excretion Uptake

Abiotic
Abiotic Reservoirs for Essential
Elements

• Lithosphere (bedrock and soil)

• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere (especially the
ocean)
 Carbon Cycle
Where do we find carbon?
• Air (carbon dioxide)
• Dissolved in water:
– Carbonic acid
– Carbonate and bicarbonate ions
• Rocks and soil:
– e.g. limestone calcium carbonate
• Fossil fuel deposits:
– Coal, oil, natural gas
• Living organisms - organic molecules:
– Carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
 Relative amounts of carbon in Reservoirs
and living and dead Tissues
• Atmosphere = 1
• Living organisms = 0.66
• Decaying Organic Matter = 6.7
• Fossil Fuels =14.3
• Ocean Waters = 50
• Carbonate Sediments (limestone) = 29,000,000
 Types of Reservoirs
• Active Reservoirs
• Storage Reservoirs
 Active Reservoirs for Carbon

• Atmosphere
– Carbon dioxide
• Hydrosphere
– Carbon dioxide
– Bicarbonate ions
– Carbonate ions
 Storage Reservoirs for Carbon
• Carbonate rocks
– limestone
• Fossil fuels
– Coal
– Oil
– Natural Gas
Chemicals move from one abiotic
Reservoir to another
CO2 Atmosphere
Hydrosphere

Carbonic acid Bicarbonate ion Carbonate ion

+ Calcium

Volcanic Sedimentary Calcium Carbonate

Rock
Activity
(Limestone)
 The Carbon Cycle
• Atmosphere contains
– 0.037% (370 ppm) carbon dioxide
– @720 trillion kg Carbon
• Annually in photosynthesis
– @120 trillion kg of carbon –
– 1/6 of atmospheric CO2
 Why photosynthesis does not deplete
atmospheric CO2
• Rapid recycling (high Mobility)
– Biotic and Abiotic

• Oceans stabilize atmospheric concentration

• Release from storage reservoirs
Reason 1: There is great mobility of carbon
120
trillion kg

Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere

Solar Energy
CO2 + H2O carbohydrate + oxygen

Chlorophyll
Reason 1: There is great mobility of carbon

Respiration/Decomposition returns CO2 to the

atmosphere

Carbohydrate + Oxygen CO2 + H2O

Plants 60 trillion kg
heterotrophs (decomposers) 60 trillion kg
Balance between photosynthesis and
respiration
• Plants remove 120 trillion kg of Carbon
– Photosynthesis
• Respiration returns 120 trillion kg of
Carbon
– Plant respiration 60 trillion kg of Carbon
– Heterotrophic respiration 60 trillion kg of
Carbon
 Seasonal Variation in
atmospheric carbon dioxide

Maximum Photosynthesis
Conc.
carbon
dioxide

Month J F M A M J J A S O N
Ocean Help Stabilize Levels of
Atmospheric CO2
 Carbon is stored in more forms
than just CO2 in the oceans
Atmosphere
Carbonic
Ocean bicarbonate ion
Acid
Co2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3

H+ + Co3 (carbonate ion)

Reactions are reversible
 Oceans help stabilize Levels of
Atmospheric CO2

Ocean Atmosphere

Ocean Equilibrium
Atmosphere

Ocean Atmosphere
 Aquatic/Atmospheric Reservoirs
30 to 50% of Atmospheric carbon dioxide
in the ocean in a few years
Currently a Net flux of carbon into ocean

Carbon Dioxide Net 107 trillion kg

Flux 2 trillion kg Atmosphere

OCEAN 105 trillion kg

 3. Release from storage Reservoirs:
Fossil Deposits
• Fossil fuels
– Coal, oil and natural gas
– Carboniferous - 345-280 million YBP
• Carbonate rock
– Shells of marine animals
– Limestone and Dolomite
• Slow exchange
– Carbon “locked up” for millions of years
 Amounts in the Storage Pools
Compared to the Atmosphere
(Atmosphere = 1)

• Fossil Fuels (14.3)

• Carbonate Sediments (29,000,000)
 How Does Carbon Get From the
Storage Reservoirs to the Active
Reservoirs?
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Subduction and volcanic activity
Plate Tectonics
Plate
Tectonics
 Plate tectonics
• Plate tectonics
– Move apart
– Slide past
– Override (subduction)
CO2
 Changes in atmospheric carbon
dioxide

• In the past 150 years, there has been a

substantial increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide
Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
Reasons for Increased Atmospheric
CO2
• Increases in past 140-150 years
because of:
• Deforestation
• Current mostly tropical regions
Agricultural expansion
• Industrialization (about 75%)
 Estimates of Carbon Reservoirs
Trillion kg of carbon
• Soil Organic Carbon 1,500
• Litter 100
• Live Biomass 650
• Total 2,250
• Atmosphere 720
• Soil + litter + live biomass (2,250 ) is 3X’s
the atmosphere (720)
 Forests as Carbon Sinks
Carbon
dioxide Carbon
Tree dioxide
Photosynthesis
Plant respiration Carbon is stored in the
plant’s tissues (roots, stems,
and leaves)

Decomposer Carbon is incorporated

respiration into the soil
 Young Forests and Mature
Forests
Gross Primary
Production

Carbon Net Primary

Production

Respiration

YOUNG MATURE
 Young Forests and Mature Forests
Carbon Removed from
the atmosphere
Gross Primary Biomass
Production

Carbon

Respiration

YOUNG MATURE
Forests as carbons sinks (Mature Vs. Young
Forests)
• Young forests
– Accumulate more carbon than they give off in
respiration
– Represent smaller “carbon sinks”
• Mature forests
– Approximate balance between photosynthesis
and respiration
– Larger sinks for carbon
 Cutting and Burning Forest returns large
amounts of carbon to the atmosphere

• What happens when forests

are converted to cropland?
Reasons for increased carbon dioxide
• Industry
– Fossil fuel burning 6.9-7.0 trillion kg of
carbon (77%)
• Deforestation
– 1.8-2.0 trillion kg of carbon (22%)
– mostly in tropical regions of the world

• Consequences?
 Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse
Solar
Radiation
Glass

long-wave
radiation is
absorbed
8-12 microns

Carbon dioxide lets Short Energy Absorbed

wave radiation pass through
0.1-7.0 microns
 In coming Greenhouse Gases
radiation
Carbon dioxide

CO2 is essentially
transparent to
Earth
solar energy

•Energy absorbed by carbon dioxide is

radiated in all directions.
•Some of this energy is absorbed by the earth
causing the greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse Gases

• Gas % Rel. Efficiency

– Contribution
• CO2 65% 1
• Methane (CH4) 20% 21
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 5% 270
• CFCs >5% 15,000
• CFC = Chlorofluorcarbons
 Greenhouse Gases
• Gas Atmospheric Conc. (ppm)

– CO2 370
• CFCs 0.000225
• Methane* 1.6
• Nitrous Oxide 0.31
 Methane Production (20% Global
Warming)
• Natural Sources (40%)
– Decomposition of detritis
• Human Sources (60%)
– Land fills
– Natural Gas Management
– Livestock Production
• Ruminant 25-500 liters/day
• Manure Management
• 37% of human sources
• 2% of global warming
1996 (C02 from fossil fuels, cement production, gas flaring)
RANK NATION CO2 TOT * CO2/ CAP**

1 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1446777 5.37

2 CHINA (MAINLAND) 917997 0.76
3 RUSSIAN FEDERATION 431090 2.91
4 JAPAN 318686 2.54
5 INDIA 272212 0.29
6 GERMANY 235050 2.87
7 UNITED KINGDOM 152015 2.59
8 CANADA 111723 3.76
9 REPUBLIC OF KOREA 111370 2.46
10 ITALY (INCLUDING SAN MARINO) 110052 1.92
11 UKRAINE 108431 2.10
12 FRANCE (INCLUDING MONACO) 98750 1.69
13 POLAND 97375 2.52
14 MEXICO 95007 1.02
Total* = 1,000 metric tons of carbon, metric tons per capita**
Changes in Carbon dioxide
Emissions
China surpassed USA’s emissions in 2006
by 8%, China’s CO2 emissions are now
estimated to be about 14% higher than
those from the USA
 Current Total CO2 Emissions (2007)
Five Leading Nations
• Country Total (%)
– China 24
– USA 21
– EU-15 15
– India 8
– Russian Federation 6%

• Total 71%
 Per capita Emission Top Five
• Country Capita (metric tons)
– USA 19.4
– Russia 11.8
– EU-15 8.6
– China 5.1
– India 1.8
China Lacks Technology to Curb
Emissions
How much CO2 does the
earth’s atmosphere
accumulate each year?
 Global Carbon Emissions
Breakdown Giga tons (Trillion tons)
• Global Emissions: 8.7-9.1
– Fossil fuels: 6.9-7.0 (77%)
– Land-use change (deforestation): 1.8-2.0 (22%)
– Other (cement production, gas flaring): 0.1 (1%)
• Global Absorption:8.7-9.1
– Remains in atmosphere:4.5
– Absorbed by oceans:2.3
– Absorbed by vegetation:1.9-2.3
 The Industrial Revolution Caused a
Dramatic Rise in CO2

2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000

Inter-Glacial CO2 Year (AD)

 Could Changes in Carbon Dioxide
alter world temperature
• Long-term temperature change based on
Vostok ice (Antarctic) –
• Global data land base thermometers:
– 0.6 Celsius (1.2 degree Fahrenheit)-
World Temperature
 Changes in World Climate

• Five of the six warmest years in

meteorological history occurred in this
century
• Nineteen of warmest years in global
meteorological history occurred in the
past 20 years
• 2006 5th warmest year
• 2007 2nd warmest year
 Boulder Glacier, Glacier National Park,
Montana 56 years later, from the same point.

July 1932 July 1988

Departure from World Warming Trend in 1992 and 1993
 Trends in world temperature
• Increasing temperature interrupted 1992 & 1993
• Eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines
• Sulfur dioxide
– two-year cooling trend
– sulfur dioxide - nucleus for water droplets to form
• Increase low cloudiness
– cause world temperatures to cool
– warming resumed in 1994
 Some consequences of global
warming?

• Some parts of the world become cooler.

• Loss of biological diversity
• Plant growth faster with less water loss
• Patterns of world crop yields change
• Insect damage to crops increase
• Human tropical diseases may spread
• Sea level rises
• Climate less predictable
Unexpected Climatic Change

Some parts of the world may

become markedly cooler!!
Ocean Conveyor Belt
Loss of pollinators
 Loss of Biodiversity
• Hummingbirds – pollinate flowers in mountains
– Wintering birds migrate at a precise photoperiod
• Cannot rely on local climate
• Arrive when plants are in flower
• Flowering plants
– Specialized for hummingbirds
– Flower controlled by temp.
– Global warming means earlier flowering
• Pollinators arrive too late
• Cascading interactions:
– Pollinators have no resources
– Plants set no seeds
– Herbivores and seed predators decline
– Predators decline
What are the Possible Consequences
of Global Warming?
• Loss of biological diversity
– Loss of migration routes due to habitat destruction
– Encouragement of aggressive, exotic
species
 Polar Bears

– Decline in polar bears

• 20,000 – 25,000
• Polar bears are now Federally listed
• An “endangered” species is one that is in
danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of its range. A
“threatened” species is one that is likely
to become endangered in the foreseeable
future.
Effect of elevated CO2 on plant growth
CO2 H2O

• Generally plants
– Higher photosynthesis as CO2 increases
– Lose less water
• Negative effects
– Higher temperature and drought
 Crop Yields
• Generally increased crop yields
– World’s three major crops:
• Rice, corn and wheat
• Tropical regions
– Higher temperatures and reduced moisture
– Likely will decrease crop yields
• Overall no expected change world wide
• Local Change ?
 Some consequences of global
warming?

• Some parts of the world become cooler.

• Loss of biological diversity
• Plant growth faster with less water loss
• Patterns of world crop yields change
• Insect damage to crops increase
• Human tropical diseases may spread
• Sea level rises
• Climate less predictable
 Insect Damage to plants may
increase due to global warming
• Warmer temperatures
– Increase insect metabolism
• Plants will grow faster
– Less nitrogen per unit of plant tissue
– Insects eat more plant to obtain nitrogen
• Insect pests of crops
– Spread into new areas
– European corn borer
• Europe and North America
Tropical human diseases may spread northward
• Malaria
• Dengue Fever – Break bone fever
– Four related Viral disease transmitted by
mosquitoes
– Symptoms:
• Rash, fever,
• Joints ache (Break bone fever)
 Dengue hemorrhagic fever

• Prior immunity: People infect by

more than one strain of virus
• Bleeding breaks through the skin
(hemorrhagic disease) – small blood
vessels (capillaries)
• 5% of cases fatal
Hemmorhagic Disease
Vectors
Aedes aegypti –Now found in
Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger Peoria, Illinois
mosquito) -

Asian Tiger Mosquito

Transmitted by anopheles mosquito – occurs
every where but Antarctica
Sea level rise at an
accelerated rate
• Average global sea level
rise
– 10- 25 cm last 100 2.5 cm = 1 inch
years 20 cm = 8 inches
– Melting of ice &
expansion of water
• Unmitigated (red)
• Stabilization:
– 750 ppm CO2 (blue)
– 550 ppm CO2 (green)
• Gray no climate
change .
Consequences of rising sea level
• Estuary systems
• Quality of coastal fresh water
• Coastal settlements threatened
include, Tokyo, Los Angeles,
Cairo, New York , Shanghia,
Bangkok
 Melting of land ice will contribute to Sea Rise

• Why will only

melting of land ice
contribute to sea
level rise?
• Where is most of
the land ice?
– Antarctica
– Greenland
• West Antarctica ice
sheet
– 6 meters
 Climate will be less predictable and climatic
extremes will increase
• Will climate change increase severity or frequency
of major storms, including hurricanes
– Some evidence relates frequency of severe hurricanes
to global warming
• U.S. NOAA (National Ocean and Atmospheric
Administration)
– Steady increase in precipitation derived from extreme
one-day precipitation events
• Insurance companies are paying out more money
because of unexpected disastrous storms
 Kyoto Protocol
• Adopted on 12 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan
– (UNFCCC)
• Terms for implementation
– 55 parties to United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• 1992 Earth Summit
– At least of 55% of 1990 CO2 emissions
– Effective February 16, 2005
– 178 signatories (as of April 2008)
• 61.6% of emissions
 Kyoto Protocol
• Reduction in Emissions or Trading Emissions:
– 6 key greenhouse gases
– below 1990 base level
– Period 2008-2012
• 5.5 % Developed countries collectively
• Industrialized nations 5.2%
– 8% Switzerland
– 7% USA (at the time USA produced 37% of CO2
emissions)
– 6% Canada, Hungary, Poland, Japan, Russia
– Stabilize Ukraine, New Zealand
– Norway +1%,
– Australia +8%
– India and China no limitations
 Kyoto Protocol USA
• President Clinton
• President Bush
• Carbon credits
– Companies with excess emission purchase
credits from companies with excess allowances
– Green companies: plant trees to absorb excess
carbon dioxide and sell carbon credits to
companies with excess allowance.
 Carbon emission from fossil fuel burning
Selected Total Per capita Tons/$ Growth
Countries (million tons) (tons) GNP* 1990-94
USA 1,371 5.26 210 4.4%
China 835 0.71 330 13.0
Russia 455 3.08 590 -24.1
Japan 299 2.39 110 0.1
United Kingdom 153 2.62 150 -0.3
Poland 89 2.31 460 -4.5
South Korea 88 1.98 200 43.7
* tons per million dollars
 Planting Trees
• In the tropics:
– one trees is planted for every 10 cut
– Africa one planted for every 29 cut
• World wide we would have to plant 1,000
trees per person annually
• USA --we would have plant 4,500 trees per
person, at 1,200 trees/acre this is 3.75 acres
per year