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fU : U M fU U Rn
P x P , x P ,
1
U
2
U , xUn P
Dim(M) = n.
g : V M g V Rn
U,V open
U V , f U , g V , f U g V open
Let S U V
f S x1 , , xn g S y1 , , yn
g f 1 : Rn Rn x , 1
, xn y ,1
, yn
y j y j x1 , , xn y x j 1,
j
,n
( Coordinate transformation )
S 2 P x1 , x 2 , x 3 R3 x1 x 2 x3 const
2 2 2
Every P has a neighborhood that maps
1-1 onto an open disc in R2.
( Lengths & angles not preserved )
Spherical coordinates: x1 , x 2
f : S 2 R2 P f P ,
Range f x , x
1 2
0 x1 , 0 x 2 2
Breakdowns of f :
• North & south poles in S2 mapped to line (0, x2) & (, x2) in R2, resp.
• Points (x1, 0) & (x1, 2) correspond to same point in S2.
Range f x , x
1 2
0 x1 , 0 x 2 2 2nd map
needed
Both poles & semi-circle joining them ( = 0 ) not covered
One choice of 2nd map:
Another spherical coordinates with its = 0 semi-circle given by
{ (/2 , ) | {/2 , 3/2 } } in terms of coordinates of 1st system.
Examples
(i) Set of all rotations R( ,, ) in E3. ( Lie group SO(3) )
(ii) Set of all boost Lorentz transformations (3-D).
(iii) Phase space of N particles ( 6N-D).
(iv) Solution space of any ( algebraic or differential ) equation
(v) Any n-D vector space is isomorphic to Rn.
(vi) A Lie group is a C-manifold that is also a group.
Let f: M N
If f & f –1 are both 1–1 & C, then f is a diffeomorphism of M onto N.
M & N are diffeomorphic.
: I RM
P x i C 1 , i 1, , n
dimM n
f :M R
P f P f g 1 x1 , , xn
Reminder: x j P C
dg n
d xi f d n
d xi
Chain rule:
d i 1 d xi d i 1 d xi
d d xi
vector tangent to σ() with components
d d
wrt coordinate basis i
x i
Tangent (vector) space TP(M) at P = span i
n
d xi d xi
a
d d d
Vector addition: a b b i
d d d i 1 d d
Reasons / advantages of defining a vector as d/d :
• Transforms under coordinate changes like a contravariant vector in tensor analysis.
• No notion of “distance” involved works on manifolds without metric.
• Definition is intrinsic: depends only on curves on M.
Finer points:
• Each d/d denotes an equivalent class of distinct
curves having the same tangent at P.
• Two vectors d/d & d/d may denote the same
tangent to the same curve under different parametrization.
• Only vectors at the same point on M can be added to
produce another vector. ( Vectors at different points
belong to different vector spaces )
2.8. Basis Vectors and Basis Vector Fields
Let M be an n-D manifold.
• P M, TP(M) is an n-D vector space.
• Any collection of n linearly independent vectors in TP(M) is a basis for TP(M) .
• A coordinate system { x i } in a neighborhood U of P defines a coordinate basis
{ i } at all points in U.
Let e
i be an arbitrary (non-coordinate) basis for TP(M) .
V V i i V j e j V TP M
i j
Proof:
y j y j x1 , , xn j 1, ,n is invertible
yi
Inverse function theorem det J det 0
x j
i.e., vectors with components given by the columns of J are linearly independent .
T
y y 1 2
y
3
The jth column , , , represents the vector
x x xj
j j
y1 y2 yn
QED
x y
j 1
x y
j 2
x j yn xj
2.9.a.Bundles Ref: Choquet, § III.2
Cartesian product: X Y x, y x X , y Y
E.g. Cartesian bundle B 1 B 2 , B1 , 1 with 1 x1 , x2 x1
j : 1 U j U j F p j p p , j p
1
b) Let x U j Uk then k , x j, x : F F is an element of G
F Rn x, v x
Example T(S2) :
Schutz’s discussion is faulty.
It is true that S2 has no continuous cross-section frame bundle of S2 is not trivial.
For proof: see Choquet, p.193.
However, the (Brouwer) fixed point theorem states that every homeomorphism from
a closed n-ball onto itself has at least one fixed point.
It says nothing about n-spheres Sn.
Example: see Choquet, p.126.
Mobius band = Fibre bundle ( M, S1, π, G ) with typical fibre F = I R.
The base S1 is covered by 2 open sets.
G = { e, σ} C2 .
2.12. Vector Fields and Integral Curves
d xi
vi x j where V i P v i x j
d
Vector field ~ set of 1st order ODEs.
Solution exists & is unique in a region where {vi(x)} is Lipschitzian (Choquet, p.95)
f x f y k x y x, y U
x
V1 y
r
y
V2 x
r
y
V x, y V 1 x, y ,V 2 x, y y , x
x
r r
x, y 0,0 r
2
x y
2
x2 y2
V x, y V 0,0 y y 2 x 2 r2 1
2 2
x
r r r r
n d n xi n d n i
x 0
i
n
x
n0 n! d n 0 n 0 n! d 0
d
e
d
x i e Y xi
0
0
d
Yf f
df
d d
d d d d f d2 f
Y f 2
f d d d 2 Y Y Y Y
d d
Y n
f Y Y Y Y f
dn f
nY 's d n
2.14. Lie Brackets and Noncoordinate Bases
Coordinate basis : i with i , j 0 i, j
Let d d
V & W then
d d
d d d d d d i j f j i f
V , W f ,
f d d d xi
f f V W
x j
W
x j
V i
d d d ij x
j f j i f
Vi W W V i
(Einstein's summation notation)
xi x j x j x
W j f 2 f j V f
i
2 f
V i
i
W j
j
W j V i
x x j
x i
x x x i
x j xi
W j f j V
i
f
V i
W
xi x j x j xi
j W i j V
i
f
V W i
x j
x j x
X
Lie bracket V , W VW WV V j W i , j W j V i , j i X, j
x j
r cos 1 sin 2
sin 1 cos 2
Coordinate grid:
xi is constant on the integral curves of ∂j .
d d
V & W
d d
d i d d i
x i A exp x exp exp x
d R d d P
d d i
x i B exp exp x
d d P
d 1 2 d2 d 1 2 d2 3
1
d 2 d2
O 3
, 1
d 2 d 2
O x i
P
d d i
2 x P O 2 V , W xi O 3
3
,
d d
P
d d i d d i
x , exp
i
exp x exp exp x
d d P d d P
d n d n f n 1 d n f
exp f n
n 1 n 1 ! d
n
d n0 n ! d
n d n 1 f exp d d f
n 0 n! d d d
n 1
xi d d d xi d xi d
exp exp
Q d d d d Q d
P
xi d d d xi d xi d
exp exp
Q d d d d Q
d
P
x1 x2
det 0
x 1
x 2
General case:
x ,
i 1
, n
exp j
Yj x i Yj
P j
1-Forms
Let X & Y be linear spaces over K. A mapping f : X → Y is called linear if
f ax bu a f x b f u a, b K & x, u X
The set L(X,Y) of all linear mappings from X to Y is a linear space over K with
f g x f x g x ( vector addition )
a f x a f x ( scalar multiplication )
, TP* M L TP M , K
aV b W a V b W a, b K & V ,W TP M
a b V a V b V
, is called the contraction. Its 1st argument must be a 1-form; the 2nd, a vector.
Do not confuse it with the inner product | , where both arguments are vectors.
2.17. Examples of 1-Forms
Matrix algebra:
Column matrix ~ vector Row matrix ~ covector
Matrix multiplication ~ contraction
a : C 1,1 R
by f a , f f a
a 1,1
1
Setting a , f dx x a f x f a
1
one may say δ(xa) is a function in C[1,1] that gives rise to the 1-form δa .
P M
*
The gradient of a function f : M → K is the 1-form d f T satisfying
d df
d
TP M
df d
d is the exterior derivative
d d
h
h d h x d h xi i i x i
x x
→ 1-form is a set of parallel planes
s.t. e i e j e j e i e i , e j ji
Since V V i ei V TP M
we have e i V e i V j e j V j e i e j V j V
j i i
V ei e i V
V V i ei V i ei ei V ei i ei V i V
i
where i ei ei V is arbitrary → i e i ei ei
e i
is indeed a basis for T*P(M)
xi
dx j j j
i i
Coordinate basis:
x x
Example: E2 with polar coordinates
dx i j ji
Coordinate bases:
i → vector : V V i i
Contraction: V V i V i
F : TP* M TP* M TP M TP M K
....... N factors ......... ....... M factors .........
A vector is a (10) tensor, a 1-form is a (01) tensor & a function is a (00) tensor.
T ;V K → T ; _ is a 1-form.
Elasticity:
Stress vector = resultant force per unit area across a surface
Let the stress vector over cube face S(k) with normal ek be F(k) , then
F k k i ei or F e
i
Caution: V W W V since W V p, q W p V q
S i1 iN
j1 jM
S e i1 , e iN ; e j1 , , e jM
so that S S i1 iN
j1 jM ei1 eiN e j1 e jM
2.25. Contraction
The summation of a pair of upper & lower tensor indices is called contraction.
→ C ; V C i j i V j Aik Bk j i V j A , e k B ek , V
A , e k B ek , V
A , B _ , V
2.26. Basis Transformations
Tensor analysis: A tensor is an object that transforms like a tensor.
Consider ei e e
i i' by
Coordinate transform: x y
i i'
Coordinate basis: ei i ei ' i '
x y
Dual basis: e i dx i e i ' dy i '
x j x j yi '
ei ' i ' i ' j ej j
i' i'
j
i'
j
y
i'
y x y x
j
2 x j
i ' , j ' j ' i ' j j ', i '
j ( not true for general bases )
y y
2.27. Tensor Operations on Components
Operations on components that result in another tensor are called tensor operations.
They are necessarily basis independent.
Examples:
1. Aij + B ij = C ij → A + B = C
2. a Aij → a A
3. Aij B kl = C i kj l → AB = C
4. C i kk l = D il ( contraction )
Equations containing only tensor operations on tensors are called tensor equations.
They are necessarily basis independent.
2.28. Functions & Scalars
: X X R by V ,U V U
One can associate a (02) metric tensor g with by g V ,U V U
g is symmetric since is : gi j g ei , e j ei e j e j ei g ji
Matrix notation: g T g
T OD
T
DT OT D O 1
g DO 1 g OD
g DO 1 g OD D diag di
g D gd D diag gd i d i
2
O can be chosen s.t.
1
Setting di g is diagonal with elements 1
gd i
I T I T I O n
Canonical form of the Minkowski metric is diag 1, 1, 1, 1
Corresponding bases are called Lorentz bases.
V Vi e i where Vi ei V g V , ei g V j e j , ei V j g ji gi j V j
gi j g jk i k → g ki Vi g ki gi j V j ji V j V i
In a metric space, tensors of ranks (NM) , (N1M1), (N2M 2) , …., are all equivalent.
They’re simply called tensors of order N+M.
d xi d x j
If g is positive definite, then l g V ,V g i j x
d d
If g has the canonical form diag 1, 1, 1, 1
then case Δl2 > 0 is called space-like & Δl2 < 0, time-like.
Note that l 0 x 0
2.31. Special Relativity
Event intervals: s x
2
x x x
0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 x x
V V 0 , V 1 , V 2 , V 3 V V0 , V1 , V2 , V3 V 0 , V 1 , V 2 , V 3
f f f f f f f f
d f 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 d f 0 , 1 , 2 , 3
x x x x x x x x