Resistance Forces on A Vehicle

Estimation of Vehicle Demands….

 Resistance Forces on A Vehicle

• The major components of the resisting forces to motion

are comprised of :
• Acceleration forces (Faccel = ma & I forces)
• Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
• Gradeability requirements (Fgrade)
• Chassis losses (Froll resist ).

F  Faccel  Faero  Frr  Fg

Force System on A Rolling Wheel
Road Conditions & Rolling Resistance

4
 Rolling Resistance

Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel ( 6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance
The magnitude of this force is Approximated as:
Rolling resistance of a vehicle is proportional to the component of
weight normal to the surface of travel
Frr  Mg Frr  Crr Mg

Prr = Crr  M  V  g
 Standard Formula for Rolling Resistance

 9.81 
P rr =    C rr  M  V
 3600 
P rr = (2.72  10 )  C rr  M  V
-3

 V 
Crr  0.011  
 147 
where:
P = power (kW)
Crr = coefficient of rolling resistance
M = mass (kg)
V = velocity (KpH)
Typical Values of Coefficient of Rolling Resistance
Contact Type Crr

Steel wheel on rail 0.0002...0.0010

Car tire on road 0.010...0.035
Car tire energy safe 0.006...0.009
Tube 22mm, 8 bar 0.002
Race tyre 23 mm, 7 bar 0.003
Touring 32 mm, 5 bar 0.005

Tyre with leak protection 37

0.007 / 0.01
mm, 5 bar / 3 bar
Effect of Road Condition on Crr

8
Rolling Resistance And Drag Forces Versus Velocity
 Grade Resistance

Composed of
– Gravitational force acting on the vehicle

Fg  mg sin  g
For small angles, sin  g  tan  g
θg

Fg  mg tan  g
Fg

tan  g  G
θg mg
Fg  mgG
Total Vehicular Resistance at Constant Velocity

AR = air resistance [N]

RR = rolling resistance [N]
GR = gradient resistance [N]
TR = total resistance [N]
 Steady State Demand Curve
Resistance

Vehicle Speed
 Vehicle Speed vs. Engine Speed

2rN crank 1  i 
V
60000  Go

V = velocity , km/hr
r = wheel radius, m
Ncrank = crankshaft rpm
i = driveline slippage
GO = Overall gear reduction ratio
Typical Engine Torque-Power Curves
Steady State Demand Vs Available Effort

15
 Inertial or Transient Forces

• Transient forces are primarily comprised of acceleration

related forces where a change in velocity is required.
• These include:
• The rotational inertia requirements (FI ) and
• the translational mass (Fma).
• If rotational mass is added to a translating vehicle, it adds not
only rotational inertia but also translational inertia.
 Inertial Resistance

F IR =  meff vehicle a

F IR =  mvehicle  meq a 
where:
FIR = inertia resistance [N]
meff-vehicle = Vehicle mass + Equivalent mass of rotating parts [kg]
a = car acceleration [m/s2],
(from 0 to 100 km/h in: 6 s (4.63 m/s2), 18 s (1.543 m/s2))
mvehicle = Vehicle mass [kg]
meq = Equivalent mass of rotating parts [kg]

17
18
 Equivalent Mass of Rotating Parts
Torque due to any rotating part (ex. Wheel)
d
T i = I wheel = I wheel  wheel
dt
avehicle
= mwheel k  wheel
2
 wheel =
r tire
= angular acceleration k = radius of gyration

wheels and axles = 78% of total polar inertia

propeller shaft = 1.5%
Engine = 6%
Flywheel and clutch =14.5%
Therefore the equivalent mass of all rotational parts including losses is
represented as:

I wheel &axles I propeller  f  G f I e  I flywheel  I clutch  mt  G f  Ggb

2 2 2

meq  2
 2
 2
rwheel rwheel rwheel
 Required Torque & Power at Wheels
pdemandvehicle
Twheel 
wheel
60  pdemandvehicle 60  pengine  mt
Twheel  Twheel 
2N wheel 2N wheel
60  pengine  mt
Twheel  60  pengine  mt  
 N engine  Pwheel 
2   N engine 
 Ggb  G f  2 
 Ggb  G f 

Twheel  Tengine  Ggb  G f  mt

Tractive Effort demanded by a vehicle):

Twheel Tengine  Ggb  G f  mt

FTE  
rwheel rwheel
Vehicle Dynamics Model
Transmission System Model
Torque Requirements Model
Engine Model
Pune Urban Drive Cycle
Engine RPM during Urban Driving Cycle
Engine Fuel Consumption During Urban Driving
Cycle
 Kinetic Energy Available during Braking per Driving
42382.8 79296.9
Cycle
22501.6 53078.1
200000
9407.5 35019.5
12041kJ
180000 2538.6 36748.7
4921.9 11812.9
160000 29754.2 179702.1
29393.3 145894.5
140000
9071.9 148095.7
120000
97748.6 179691.7
18132.9 21710.0
100000 29393.3
1204149.7
80000

60000

40000

20000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

-20000
 Inertial Energy in A Sub Cycle Duration : 450 to 475
sec
35000

30000

25000

20000
Inertial Energy, J

15000

10000

5000

0
445 450 455 460 465 470 475 480

Time in seconds
Inertial Energy in A Sub Cycle Duration :1105 to 1139
sec
200000

180000

160000

140000

120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

0
1020 1040 1060 1080 1100 1120 1140

-20000
Fuel Savings due to Idling Logic
Idling Engine During Braking : Fuel
Consumption
Fuel Consumption over Pune Drive Cycle
 Braking Methods Vs Fuel Economy

• A planned gradual stop, say at a traffic light where you would

prefer saving fuel over engine braking - you may press the clutch
and / or shift to neutral and brake simultaneously.
• Caveat - if you are using fuel cut-off, you need not shift to
neutral or press clutch. Just use clutch to avoid engine stalling.
• Slowing down to slightly lower speeds, say while abandoning an
overtaking maneuver - Clutch is not required as long as you don't
drop too low on engine speed.
• Panic braking from high speed to stop or very slow speed - don't
touch the clutch even if you risk stalling the engine and use
maximum engine braking.
• Stop-and-go braking like in bumper to bumper traffic - press
clutch and brake to avoid engine stalling.
• Track / rally circuit - brakes first and eyes on tachometer. As
soon as you close on in-gear idle (which you should know
better than your birthday if you are racing), press the clutch
and downshift gears. Re-engage clutch as soon as you have
finished shifting.
• Coasting downhill - brakes first and use clutch only to shift
gears.
 Braking Vs Safety

• The driver is trying to achieve two things by braking

Slow down the vehicle or bring it to stop within a desirable
time span so that everyone is safe
• As long as the first one is achieved, avoid engine stall
• If you do not apply clutch while braking, vehicle gets more
braking assistance due to engine resistance.
 You are trying to slowdown the vehicle from say
80kmph or more for a normal stop
• At 80kmph or more you would normally be driving in top gear.
• Your engine is not going to stall in the same gear till you come
down to say 40kmph.
• In this case apply brake without clutch till you reach that speed
and then move to the lower gear(usually 4th) and release the
clutch.
• Keep braking till you reach around 25 kmph and apply clutch
and bring the vehicle to stop.
• The second part is applicable if you were driving at less than say
50kmph.
• You don't need to change the gear.
• Keep applying the brakes and apply clutch when you feel engine
running too slow.
 Emergency stop/slowdown at any speed

• Just apply brake without clutch.

• You need maximum braking even at the cost of engine
stalling.
• Even if you are at a very high speed (100kmph or more),
lowering the gear is not a great idea.
• Disengaged clutch (even if it is for very short duration) would
lower your total braking effectiveness.
 Driving downhill

• Lower the gear to a comfortable one (usual theory advises the

same gear in which you would go uphill at the same place.
• However my experience say it would be too slow, you may
want to run in the next higher gear) and apply brakes without
clutch.
• This will help to avoid over heating of your brakes.
 Braking N Safety

• In general, if we're talking normal driving situations the rule of

thumb you should follow is to keep the car in gear for the most
amount of time.
• Downshifting is good, but most people do not downshift when
stopping.
• This can either just be laziness, but it's also driven by the fact
that when you need to slow down reasonably fast you might
just not have enough time to row through the gears.
• Best way to do is, brake in gear until the car about the slowest
speed for whatever gear it is in, then clutch in, go into neutral
and keep braking further.