Chapter 9: Deformation Monitoring

and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques

'''
Dr. John Ogundare
BCIT, Burnaby

1
 Chapter Objectives (1/2)
 Be able to do the following:
1. Discuss the role of geodetic deformation monitoring and analysis.
2. Discuss the characteristics of geodetic deformation monitoring techniq
ues in contrast with other similar techniques.
3. Discuss the important differences between absolute and relative geod
etic networks and the importance of datum definition.
4. Discuss the differences between deformation monitoring and control s
urveys.
5. Use the design elements of deformation monitoring schemes to carry
out deformation monitoring surveys.
6. Describe the various monumentation and targeting requirements for d
eformation monitoring networks.
7. Perform geodetic deformation monitoring surveys for hydro-electric da
m structures and for subsidence areas.
8. Reduce deformation monitoring data for input into least squares netwo
rk adjustment software package for further processing.

2
 Chapter Objectives (2/2)
 Be able to do the following:
9. Explain the importance of single-point movement in absolute geodetic
deformation monitoring networks.
10. Explain the concept of the iterative weighted similarity transformation (
IWST) and use it to solve the problem of datum instability.
11. Discuss the differences between the observation-difference and coordi
nate-difference approaches in deformation analysis.
12. Perform statistical and graphical trend analyses of deformations.
13. Discuss the new developments in the automation of geodetic deformat
ion monitoring of slope walls in open pit mining.
14. Discuss the geodetic techniques for deformation monitoring of tunnels
during their construction.
15. Discuss the use of geodetic levelling procedure in deducing tilt, strain
and curvature resulting from ground subsidence.

3
 Overview
 Deformation – changes in shape, dimension & position o
f object
 Vertical deformation of ground surface is ground subsidence
 Most common parameters of deformable object common
ly monitored are deformation, strain, load, stress, ground
water pressure, etc.
 Deformation is of main interest in surveying
 Deformation monitoring techniques:
 Produce absolute data
 Allow geotechnical instrumentation to be connected together
 Deformation analysis – detect, localize and model point
movements based on deformation measurements

4
 Role of Deformation Monitoring
1. Provide safety assurance against possible failure of mo
nitored object- comparing measured deformations with
known tolerances
2. Gaining better understanding of the mechanism of rock
deformation through experiment and research
3. Verify behaviors of rock masses against their predicted
patterns to refine prediction models or validate design a
ssumptions
4. Deriving information in order to resolve dispute on effect
s on mining impact on surface infrastructure and to help
protect the structure
5. Derive information in order to identify and separate vari
ous causes of deformation
5
 Causes of Deformation
 Objects requiring monitoring: dams, tunnels, high-rise bu
ildings, bridges, industrial complexes, slopes, glaciers, a
nd areas of landslide, subsidence, recent crustal motion,
etc.
 Possible causes of deformation – tidal effect, changing g
round water level, mining activities, tectonic, landslide, al
kaline aggregate reaction expansion of concrete, change
able water load on dam structures, seasonal thermal-ind
uced deformations, etc.

6
Characteristics of Geodetic Monitoring Techn
iques
 Characteristics of geodetic techniques compared with hi
gh-definition surveying and remote sensing and geotech
nical instrumentation techniques
1. They measure ground surface deformations using ground surfa
ce network of interconnected points
2. They provide redundant measurements so that they are more r
eliable
3. They provide overall picture of deformation trend of the whole o
bject monitored with reference to stable points
4. They are labor-intensive and not done frequently, except in aut
omated mode
5. Automation may be very expensive
6. They require intervisibility between observing stations and are
affected by the environment

7
 Geodetic Monitoring Networks
 Two classes of geodetic monitoring networks:
 Absolute geodetic network – stable points (reference
network or reference datum) and unstable points bein
g monitored (object points)
 Will allow both strain components and absolute movements o
f object points
 Relative geodetic network – all points are assumed u
nstable (object points); no stable points as reference
 Will allow detection of strain components

8
 Advanced Geodetic Technologies
 Some of the advanced geodetic technologies for
deformation monitoring are robotic total stations,
precise level, GNSS with or without pseudolites (
Table 9.1)
 They are all affected by atmospheric refraction and/or
tropospheric delay
 With regard to GNSS, better solution is obtained with
12 h of observations with error in the vertical being twi
ce that of the horizontal
 Not all are suitable for fully automated and continuous
monitoring

9
 Deformation Monitoring and Control Surveys

Deformation Monitoring Surveys Control Surveys

1. Absolute positions of points are of interest
2. Common systematic errors (constant refraction, calib
ration error, scale error, configuration defects) are expe
cted to cancel out if the same in all epochs
Changes in positions between epochs a
re of interest
Must be physically removed from meas
urements or randomized to minimize t
he effects

3. Absolute scale of network is not required but ability t Absolute scale of network is required
o detect and control change in scale between epochs

4. Configuration defects (eccentricities of instruments/t Not permitted

argets, triangular misclosures are permitted

5. Correlation between repeated observations of the sa Not encouraged; but randomizes effect
me observable is encouraged: same environment and o s of sources of errors
bservation conditions, etc.

10
 Deformation Monitoring Measurements:
Error Sources
 Geodetic measurements are contaminated with effects o
f:
 Observation random errors (due to reading, pointing, centering a
nd leveling of instruments)
 Systematic errors due to instrument construction errors, atmosph
eric effects
 Seasonal (thermal) cyclic expansion of measured objects
 Other systematic errors due to lack of calibration of instruments

11
 Deformation Monitoring Schemes
 Monitoring Scheme – total plan of action, including:
 Choices of types and locations of observables,
 Timing of measurement campaign
 Stability of reference points
 Selecting monitoring techniques and suitable instrumentation
 Type of monumentation and targeting
 Determining data processing and analysis techniques
 Determining actual deformations
 Criteria for Design of monitoring scheme include
 Accuracy and reliability
 Temporal and spatial continuity dictating frequency of monitoring
and adequacy of distribution of reference and object points
 Stability of reference points must be confirmed
 Cost-effectiveness
 Choice of monitoring technology
12
 Specifications for Dam Monitoring Schemes

 No universally accepted standards and specifications for choice of m

onitoring schemes
 Monitoring schemes are designed by dam owners or individuals
 Accuracy of monitoring both horizontal and vertical displacements in co
ncrete dams is 1-2 mm up to 10 mm for horizontal displacements for em
bankment dams
 Initial design of monitoring schemes must be revisited time to time w
ith regard to:
 Configuration (or geometry) of reference and object points – if network p
oints are damaged or lost between epochs, new stations are needed to
strengthen the network or new instruments are available
 Types of observables
 Timing of campaigns – at intervals needed to detect deformation
 Accuracy of measurements
 Economy – if schemes must be reduced to reduce cost
13
Typical Elements of Dam Monitoring Scheme
s
 Typical deformation monitoring scheme of a dam consists of:
1. Horizontal angle or horizontal direction measurements
2. Distance measurements reduced to mark-to-mark and corrected for p
ossible systematic errors
3. Zenith angle measurements for reducing slope distances
4. Orthometric height difference measurements from leveling
5. Forced-centering monuments with only few tripod setups
6. Choice of reference points in suitable locations
7. Ability to confirm stability of well-protected reference points
8. Good spread of object points with suitable target designs
9. Settlement monitoring with leveling rune
10. Huge refraction problems on the crest prevents use of optical alignme
nt on the crest
11. X, Y plane coordinates are based on local coordinate system
12. Map projection coordinate system can also be used

14
 Typical Observables in Dam Monitoring
 Two-way distance measurements between two stations
 Measured 15 times each way with standard deviation of the dista
nce computed from the measurements
 Measurements with discrepancy greater than twice the standard
deviation is eliminated as outlier
 Outlier-free measurements are corrected for atmospheric effects
and reduced to mark to mark values
 Computed standard deviations are only used to eliminate inconsi
stent measurements; the manufacturer-specified standard deviati
on of the equipment is used for each observation in least square
s adjustment
 Angles or directions are measured in several sets (not less than 3 se
ts) with re-leveling of instrument between sets
 Mean of the sets is used as the angle at the point
 Current trend in dam monitoring is to integrate various geotechnical/
structural and geodetic surveys techniques

15
 Monumentation and Targeting
 Types of monuments and targets depend on the level of accuracy of
monitoring survey and location of monitored object
 Two monument design philosophies:
 Reference network points must be durable stable
 Object points located to be able to reveal local movements
 Monument design requires knowing durability and stability of rock an
d soil where reference points will be located – requires expertise of s
oil and geotechnical specialists before constructing the monuments
 Centering devices needed on monuments and targets –forced cente
ring types (with typical centering error of ± 0.1 mm)
 Reference and object points can allow instrument setup, target setu
p or both
 Points are usually pillars installed into bedrock below the surface
 Typical reference control pillar for geodetic dam monitoring is shown in Fig. 9.1

16
 Typical Reference Control Pillar

Fig. 9.1
• Extensometer anchor point is for
stability test of the pillar Fig. 9.2 Instrument pillar design
• At least 2 of the reference pillars must be stable to be safe

17
 Checking Local Pillar Movements
Monitoring pillar with
survey marker

Fig. 9.3(a)
Fig. 9.3(b)

• Extensometer anchor point on the control pillar and the survey markers on the
monitoring pillars (Monitor 1 and Monitor 2) are measured with tape
extensometer and the measurements used to perform stability test of
control pillar
• Monitor 1 and Monitor 2 are to be flush with the ground in practice
• Zenith and horizontal angles and distances are measured from reference
pillar to the two monitoring monuments
• Perform measurement every month for 1 year and determine relative
movements by using least squares adjustment method
• Unstable reference point is isolated from the other reference points
18
Dam Slope and Crest Monuments and Targets

 Survey requirement is to monitor the surface and near-s

urface movements (1.5 – 1.8 m depth) of downstream sl
ope of dams
 Monument design must be able to accommodate standard target
s and prism holders
 Accurate repeatability of centering in (X, Y, Z) coordinates must b
e ensured for targets (using specially designed circular spirit leve
ling device)
 Crest monument design is similar to that of slope monument (but
monuments are flush with the ground surface) – Fig. 9.4 is a typi
cal crest monument

19
Typical Dam Crest Monument

• The monument is a brass disk embedded in

concrete
• It can serve as reference and object points

• Suitable target plates are to be used for

slope and crest monuments
• Concentric circle insert target can be
used for the ball and socket centering
device installed in the instrument pillars
• Or specially designed omnidirectional
types

20
 Monuments for Subsidence Monitoring
• Some of the monuments used in mining subsidence monitoring
are drilled to between 1.5 and 3.4 m depth depending on the
nature of the soil (Fig. 9.5)

• Typical monuments are made

of drilled-in 4“ pipes with
survey markers welded to the
inner surfaces of the pipes

Fig. 9.5

21
 Horizontal Monitoring and Analysis
 Traditional geodetic techniques use
 Terrestrial positioning with total station, theodolites, EDM
 Space-borne GPS survey augmented with GLONASS
 Typical GPS survey of a mining area may require:
 Simultaneous use of up to 6 or more geodetic grade receivers/an
tennas in static relative positioning mode
 Data rate set at 10 s
 A high-precision GPS control point is fixed for the network adjust
ment
 Horizontal coordinates are commonly provided in map projection
grid coordinate system, such as UTM
 Typical GPS setups are shown in Fig. 9.6

22
GPS Unit Setup for Mining Subsidence Monit
oring

• GPS survey procedure is

a repetitive one:
• Tripod/tribrach and GPS
antenna are centered on
a monitoring point
• Slant antenna height
from survey point to the
antenna center is
measured
Fig. 9.6

• If the visibility to GPS satellites is poor in the area, total station traverse
survey subnet connecting to the main project network can be created
using three-baseline surveys (Fig. 9.7)
23
 GPS Three-Baseline Survey
• This is an example of total station
sub-network traverse controlled by
GPS control points C1, C2 and C3:
• Dotted lines are measured GPS
baselines

• TPD3 and TPD4 are local GPS points

whose positions are determined in
relation to GPS control points
• Perform open traverse to connect
points D8 and D9 using RTS
Forced-centering procedure followed
• Location of TP3 and TP4 are such that GPS control points, GPS sate
llites and unknown points D8 and D9 are inter-visible from
TP3 and TP4
• Series of distance, vertical, horizontal angles and meteorological val
ues are measured from TP3 and TP4
24
Adjustment of GPS Three-Baseline and Trave
rse Surveys
 Determine the adjusted coordinates of points D8 and D9
by combined least squares adjustment of the following:
 GPS determined coordinates of TPD3 and TPD4 with their covari
ance matrices and
 Total station measurements and their estimated standard deviati
ons

25
 Data Preprocessing (1/2)
 Common types of measurements to be pre-processed before use in network
adjustment: slope distances, horizontal angles, directions, zenith (or vertical)
angles and height differences
 With regard to EDM distance observables
 Calibrate the EDM near the structure being monitored
 Measure about 15 measurements each way in two-way measurement of
a distance observable
 Compute the mean and the standard deviation of the 15 distance measu
rements, prescreening each measurement using twice the standard devi
ation as tolerance limit between any two measurements
 Perform slope reduction using height differences based on differential lev
eling
 Correct reduced distances for atmospheric conditions and for the effects
of elevation differences between stations, producing corrected mark-to-m
ark distances
 Reduce mark-to-mark distances to mapping plane if required
 Assign variance to the reduced distance using manufacturer specified ac
curacy

26
 Data Preprocessing (2/2)
 With regard to angle and direction observables
 Each angle or round of directions must be measured in at least 3 sets wit
h re-leveling between sets and sampling circle readings at various positi
ons of the horizontal circle
 Determine discrepancies between reduced directions and the average v
alues
 In correcting for the effects of refractions, the effect on the vertical is at l
east one order of magnitude larger than the effect on the horizontal direc
tion
 Angular observations must be made quickly since coefficient of refraction
may change rapidly within a short time
 In trigonometric leveling or 3D triangulation networks, it may be necessar
y to reduce zenith angles to their mark-to-mark equivalent (or applying e
ye-to-object correction) due to differences in heights of instruments and t
argets
 To account for non-parallelism of local verticals at the observing stations,
the zenith angles must be corrected appropriately

27
 Data Processing Techniques (1/3)
 Measurements must first be transformed to displacements between e
pochs at network points in two approaches:
 Two-epoch (or coordinate differencing) approach
 Observation differencing approach
 Concepts of least squares parametric model adjustment method are
applied in each approach
 Two-epoch approach consists of least squares adjustment of single-epoc
h measurements in two separate epochs and their results are compared
to determine deformations between the epochs
 In least squares adjustment, each epoch measurements are e
xpressed using parametric model:

ˆf(x
ˆ) (9.9)

28
 Data Processing Techniques (2/3)
 The following are needed to solve Eqn. (9.9):
 Geodetic datum (origin of coordinate system, orientation of axes and the
scale of the coordinate system) must be defined
 Approximate coordinates (x0) of network points – determined from first e
poch of measurements and used in subsequent epochs
 The adjusted coordinates can be determined:


x̂ 0
x (9.13)


A
PAA
Pw (9.12)
T

1
T

w is a vector of misclosures between approximate measurements

determined from approximate coordinates and the corresponding
actual measurements; P is a weight matrix of observations
29
 Data Processing Techniques (3/3)
 Cofactor matrix of adjusted parameters for a given epoch:

 

1
ˆ A
T
Q
x PA
 Variance factor of unit weight is calculated as:
T
V PV
s0 
2
(9.15)
nu

Note: solution of Eqn. (9.12) will not be possible without proper

Definition of datum, solution is possible when there is no datum de
fect
30
 Datum Definition
 Datum is defined as follows:
 For 2D geodetic networks: fix 2 coordinates of a point, one scale
(or distance measurements) and one orientation (azimuth of a lin
e)
 For 3D geodetic networks: fix 3 coordinates of a point, three rotat
ions (one azimuth and angle measurements) and one scale (or d
istance measurements)
 Note:
 Distance measurements in a network provide scale for the datu
m
 Gyrotheodolite aziumth provides orientation
 Network adjustment that has a minimal amount of information jus
t to define a datum is called minimal constraint or free network a
djustment

31
 Free Network Adjustment (1/2)
 If the coordinates of network points are fixed in defining t
he datum, the network is externally constrained
 A minimal constraint adjustment in which the center of gravity of t
he network is fixed is known as inner constraint adjustment or fre
e network adjustment
 Free network adjustment have the following constraints:
 No change in the coordinates of the centroid or center of gravity (
fixed) after adjustment
 Average bearing from the centroid to each other point remains u
nchanged after adjustment (no differential rotation of network)
 Average distance from the centroid to each other point remains u
nchanged after adjustment (no scale change)
 Generally, initial coordinate values assigned to each of the netwo
rk points at the start of least squares adjustment define the datu
m

32
 Free Network Adjustment (2/2)

 Two types of models are adjusted;

 Parametric model relating observations to unknown coordinates
 Equations relating all the constraints on the unknown coordinate
s (forming constraint model) – the number of constraint equation
s is equal to the number of datum defects
 Constraint model ensures that shape and size remains fi
xed after adjustment – internal geometry is fixed
 Constrain model can be given mathematically as

GT = 0 (9.21)

33
 G-Matrix Defined
For 2-D network constraints: no fixed point, no azimuth and no
distance: shape of network is fixed; G matrix can be given as

1 0 1 0 ... 1 0
0 1 0 1 ... 0 1
T
G  (9.22)
y1 
x1 2 
y x2 m 
... y xm
 
x
1 y1 x
2 y2 ... x
m ym

i
x i
X X
G i
y i
Y Y
G (9.24)

Row 1: constrains translations in x

Row 2: constrains translations in y
Row 3: constrains orientation with respect to center of gravity
Row 4: Constrains the scale (for distances)

2018-12-12 Precision Surveying /Chapter 9 34

 Free Network Adjustment – Steps
Define parametric and constraint models:
Linearized parametric model: A  v 
w 
0 (9.11)

Constraints:
T
G0 (9.21)
v is a vector of residual corrections to original observations


Solution of free network adjustment:
 

1 
1


N
GT
GN
N
GTT
GAP
w(9.27)


Q
ˆ
x 
N
T
GGN
N
T
GG (9.28)

1 
1

T
NAP A

35
 Free Network Adjustment –Nuisance Para
meter Elimination (1/2)
Consider coordinate corrections (1) and nuisance (2) with
corresponding design matrices A1 for coordinates, A2 for
nuisance parameters:


Modified Solution of free network adjusted coordinates:

  
 

1
N
*
GT
GN*
N
*
G
GTT
A
P
*w(9.32) 1 1

   

1 
1

*
Q
ˆ
x N
*T
G
G N*
N
*T
G
G (9.29)
N
*T
A
1P*
A1 (9.30)
   

1T

P
*P 
IA AT
PA AP (9.31)

 2 2 2 2


36
Free Network Adjustment –Nuisance Para
meter Elimination (2/2)
Residual vector of the observations can be given as:

vA1
1 
Aw
22 (9.34)

Covariance matrix of free network adjusted coordinates:

ˆ
C
x
2 *
sQ ˆ
0 x
(9.35)

A posteriori variance factor of unit weight:

vTPv
s 
2
(9.36)
ndu
0

n is the number of observations, d is the number of parameters

to fix to define the datum, u is the number of unknown
parameters in the network adjustment
37
Statistical Analysis of Single-Epoch Measure
ments
 Statistical analysis involves
 Assessment of observation quality to decide whether to include t
he observation or not in adjustment (through least squares blund
er or outlier detection)
 Assignment of relative weights, ensuring that variance factors co
mputed for pairs of epochs are compatible
 Outlier detection for each single-epoch adjustment is imp
ortant
 Any undetected outlier in one epoch may be assessed as deform
ation in later analysis
 Outlier detection in least squares is based on global and local te
sts based on minimal constraint
 For outlier detection, the number of observations most be approx
imately twice the number of unknown coordinates

38
 Global Test


dfi2
s
0i

2 
df
 i
2
s
0i

2
la
rge
r
0
2
s
mal
ler

d
fi2
s
0i
2 d
 i
f2
s
0i

2
,dfi
0

1
2

,d
fi
2 2

39
 Local Test

Vi
i 
sVi



n
i,df
,  0

n as the number of observations, df is the number of

degrees of freedom , 0 = /n for in-context test,  is the
Significance level used in global test
• The associated observation is an outlier if the above condition is n
ot satisfied

40
 Deformation Estimation: Two-Epoch Measure
ments
 Prerequisites for using the approach:
 Same geodetic datum (fixed points, network scale, orientation of network)
used in the two epochs of measurements
 Appropriate standard deviations for observations are available for weightin
g the observations
 Same approximate coordinates for the common stations have been used fo
r linearization purpose
 Advantages of the approach:
 No need of measuring the same observable in each epoch
 Each epoch of measurements can be statistically assessed for blunders
 Disadvantages:
 Problem of datum definition and stability of reference datum between epoc
hs
 May not be able to handle contamination of observations due to systematic
errors, which impact variance factor of unit weight
41
Deformation Estimation: Two-Epoch Analysis
Steps (1/3)

ˆ1, x
x ˆ2 P
1, P2
Qˆ1,Q
x ˆ2
x s021,s022 (9.40)

Subscripts 1 and 2 are for epochs 1 and 2 respectively

42
Deformation Estimation: Two-Epoch Analysis
Steps (2/3)

2
s
F 0
2
1

F (9.41)
,
1 df
1,df
2 s ,
d f
1,df
2
2 02 2

with  referring to upper-tail area of F-distribution



2 2
d
fs dfs
ˆ  10
2 1 202
(9.42)
1
0
df df2

ˆ ˆ
QQQ
ˆ x
ˆ
(9.44)
2
d ˆ
x ˆ
x
1 (9.43) d x
2 1

43
Deformation Estimation: Two-Epoch Analysis S
teps (3/3)

44
Iterative Weighted Similarity Transformati
on (1/2)

Use Helmert (Similarity) Transformation matrix (S) will

transform from one datum to another datum
• The transformation process will preserve network geometry
by translating, rotating and scaling the given network from
one datum (i) into other (j) using well-chosen transformation
matrix Sj:
j Sji (9.45)

Q
j SQ ST
j i j
(9.46)

 

1

SIG
j DGDT
j with
T
j
T
D
j GT
Pj
(9.47)

2018-12-12 Precision Surveying /Chapter 9 45

Iterative weighted Similarity Transformation (IW
ST) (2/2)

I = identity matrix with principal diagonal elements as one and

off diagonal elements as zero
Pj = special identity matrix – unity for coordinates
defining datum with other elements as zero
Pj is an identity matrix for inner constraint adjustment

• Using Eqns. (9.45) – (9.47) requires iteration until the results

converge

2018-12-12 Precision Surveying /Chapter 9 46

IWST: Steps

47
Observation-Differencing Adjustment Approach

 Corresponding observations are differenced and adjusted

by least squares method
 Adjusted coordinate differences & their covariance matrices are det
ermined
 Appropriate datum must exist for the adjustment
 Conditions satisfied before adjustment:
 Same approximate coordinates (same geometry) for the 2 epochs
 Same observables, observers, same conditions

48
Observation-Differencing: Advantages and Disa
dvantages
 Advantages of using observation-differencing approach:
 Common systematic errors due to instrumentation, observer and at
mosphere will be removed
 Strain analysis can be done if datum is unstable between epochs
 It can easily accommodate geotechnical data, such as tiltmeter and
extensometer measurements
 Geometric defects (due to eccentric targets, etc.) are permitted
 Disadvantages:
 Need to measure the same observables, same instrumentation, ob
servers, etc. which may be impossible practically
 Statistical analysis of each epoch for blunders is not possible

49
Geometrical Analysis of Deformation Measureme
nts
 Deformation is a consequence of dynamic process or dynamic system,
which is composed of 3 elements:
 Factors causing deformation
 Physical properties of the monitored object
 Response of the object in form of deformation or other form
 Dynamic processes are completely described and explained by dynami
c models
 They help to study the 3 elements of dynamic system and to make predicti
ons
 The model is called deterministic if the factor causing the deformation and t
he physical properties of the monitored object are known and the deformati
ons of the object are only to be predicted
 The model is called integrated model if the factor causing the deformation
and the physical properties of the monitored object are known with deforma
tion measurements available from geodetic monitoring
50
 Dynamic Models
 Dynamic models can be broken into 3 types: kinematic, static and geo
metrical
 Kinematic models consider
 Monitored object points are moving continuously as function of time
 No acting forces or loads are involved in the modeling
 Deformation is described in form of velocity and acceleration of object points usi
ng time function and no regard for factors causing the deformation
 Static models consider
 No time is involved
 Monitored objects are not in continuous motion (at least not moving during moni
toring time), but are at equilibrium under acting forces (loads)
 Deformation is a function of only acting forces (loads), not of time
 Physical and geometric structures of the object, material properties, etc. of the o
bject must be known
 Response of the object in form of deformation or other form

51
 Geometric Models
 Geometric models consider
 Object as a set of discrete points in space
 The object points move only within certain intervals in time and not continu
ously , but the object is considered as being in equilibrium under the acting
forces (loads)
 Time is not explicitly considered
 Acting forces (loads) are not considered
 Geometric models
 Models monitoring network points or changes in geometry of the monitored
object in space and time
 The models are used in geometrical deformation analysis
 Geometrical deformation analysis is about detecting, localizing, and mo
deling monitoring network point movements based on deformation mon
itoring

52
 Geometrical Deformation Analysis (1/2)
 Problem of geometrical deformation analysis with regard to absolute m
onitoring networks
 Confirm the stability of the reference points and to identify the possible sing
le-point movement that may be due to local phenomena or wrong monume
ntation of survey markers
 If unstable reference points are not identified, the object points and other re
ference points (that are stable) will show movement even when they are tru
ly stable.
 Geometrical deformation analysis is not easy with regard to relative mo
nitoring networks
 There may be single-point movement as well as relative movements (due t
o strains in the materials of the object) of all the network points
 If there is a discontinuity (due to tectonic faults) in the object, there may be
relative rigid translations and rotations of a block of the object with respect t
o other possible blocks
 Main problem will be how to identify the deformations caused by strains, rel
ative rigid body translations, and single-point movements
53
 Geometrical Deformation Analysis (2/2)
 Analysis of relative monitoring network
 First establish whether any group of points in the network is stable between
epochs using IWST
 If stable group of points exists, treat the network as absolute network with t
he stable points as datum otherwise, analyze the network using IWST
 Overall task of deformation analysis is to obtain a displacement functio
n (deformation model) in space and time
 Once the displacement function is determined, all the basic deformation pa
rameters such as strain components, rotations, and rigid body movements
can be calculated at any desired point of the monitored object

54
 Statistical Trend Analysis of Deformation (1/3)

 After adjustments and IWST transformation, deformation must be detec

ted using two-epoch analysis
 Using single-point statistical test
 Using trend analysis
 Statistical trend analysis of deformation steps:
1. Perform minimal constraint least squares estimation of the coordinates of p
oints and the covariance matrices
2. Determine datum-dependent displacements from the estimated coordinate
s
3. Perform IWST of the displacements to obtain datum-independent relative d
isplacements and identify the stable reference points

55
Statistical Trend Analysis of Deformation (2/3)

(9.57)

56
 Statistical Trend Analysis of Deformation (3/3)

 In the case where the a priori variance factor is considered known, Eqn. (9.
57) can be replaced by the equivalent Chi-squares value
Any point with satisfying the following Chi-squares expression is flagged
as unstable:
2 ,df u
Fc  0 d

ud
5. Model the stable points as fixed reference block and determine the displac
ements of the object points
 The whole process in step 4 is statistical analysis of deformation trend
or the localization of deformation
 Trend analysis is an intermediate link between deformation measurements
and the deformation modeling

57
Graphical Trend Analysis of Deformation

• Graphical trend analysis consists of:

• Plotting network points displacement vectors with their
corresponding error ellipses
• The plot shows the spatial trend over time interval between the
two epochs
• If a displacement vector extends outside the error ellipse, the
movement is considered significant at the given significance level
and the associated point is considered unstable
• The point displacement error ellipse is constructed from
sub-matrix of displacement cofactor for the given point

58
 Displacement Error Ellipse (1/2)

qx2x qxy
ˆ 
(9.59)
2
Q

 yx yy
di
q q 

• The semi-major axis (a), semi-minor axis (b) and orientation ()
of the displacement error ellipse can be calculated as follows


a
ˆ 2
0 1
0 f
,d 2
(9.60) 
b
ˆ 2
0 2
0 f
,d 2
(9.61)

1q2

arctan
 q 
y
y
 (9.62)
 xy 

59
Displacement Error Ellipse (2/2)


aˆ
02
1
F,
0d
f
12,
df
2df
p
(9.66)


bˆ 
02F
2,
0d
f
12,
df
2df
p
(9.67)

1q2

arctan
 q 
y
y
 (9.68)
 xy 

60
Main Features of a Typical Hydroelectric Dam

• Sources of deformation
of hydro dams:
• Alkaline aggregate
reaction of concrete
• Instability of bedrock
• Changeable water
load on the dam
• Seasonal thermal-
induced deformations
• Possible seismic
events

Fig. 9.8
61
 Simulated Dam deformation

• Points A, B, C constitute the

reference network

• Point P on the crest of the dam

is the object point to be
monitored
displacement of
• Angles and distances are
measured
• External minimal constraints
and IWST are applied

• Statistical analysis and graphical trend analyses detected the movement

of object point P

62
External Minimally Constrained Displac
ements

Displacement at point P
is outside the error
ellipse (95% confidence)

Point C is barely stable

which is not supposed to
be

Fig. 9.10
63
Displacement Field After IWST

Displacement at point P
is outside the error
ellipse (95% confidence)

Point C is stable as
expected

Fig. 9.11

64
Typical Trilateration Network on a Dam

Monitoring is based on
precise differential
leveling and horizontal
control networks

Reference and object

Networks are well-
chosen

Fig. 9.12
65
 GPS Surveys Points

GPS unit installation as

part of traditional
monitoring system of an
hydroelectric dam

Fig. 9.13

66
 Deformation Monitoring of Slope Walls
 Current trend in monitoring and deformation surveys of sl
ope walls in open-pit mines includes
 Creating fully automated monitoring scheme based on RTSs and
active GPS, and assortment of geotechnical instrumentations
 Integrating a number of monitoring techniques, including GPS, to
tal stations, reflectorless EDM, and differential leveling
 In open-pit mines, slope walls can be a few hundred met
ers deep and 1 or 2 km long and wide
 Steep mine slopes are designed to reduce cost of mining
 The steepness of slopes increases the frequency of slope failure
s, requiring the need for monitoring the slopes
 Geotechnical instruments are commonly used since they are eas
ily automated
 Conventional surveying procedures are now common
67
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automatic
Monitoring System

 Advantages:
 Reduction of manpower
 More frequent data and
 Fewer errors
 Disadvantages:
 Large volume of data to be managed
 Initial cost;
 wrong use of collected data;
 needs for special personnel

68
Automatic Monitoring with Robotic Total Stati
on
 Robotic total stations (RTS) are the primary measureme
nt sensors in the automated monitoring system in open-p
it mines
 Target prisms are located strategically throughout the pit on the p
it walls
 Distances, horizontal directions and zenith angles are measured
to the targets continuously to determine 3D positions of prisms
 RTSs can be programmed for sequential self-pointing to a set of
target prisms at predetermined time intervals and measurements
can be transmitted to remote stations via a telemetry link
 Important sources of error: refraction and random pointin
g errors and instability of RTSs

69
 Minimizing Errors in RTS Automatic Mo
nitoring
 Minimizing effects of both refraction and random pointing
errors
 Maintain short distances from the RTSs to target prisms
 Take observations in several steps and spread the observations
over long periods to randomize refraction effects; measurements
can be corrected for meteorological effects
 Keep lines of sight away from strong sources of heat radiation
 Instability of RTSs will cause displacements determined t
o be biased
 Use RTS with GPS antennas to take care of instability of RTSs

70
 Collocating GPS Antenna with RTS (1/2)
 Two ways to collocate GPS antenna with RTS to correct i
nstability of the RTS in an open-pit mine monitoring:
 Collocate GPS antenna and RTS in the unstable region of the mi
ne and do the following
 Use two other GPS antennas collocated with 360º prisms: Collocated Anten
na /Prism A is located on a stable point S (outside the mining region); the oth
er Collocated Antenna/Prism B is located within the unstable mining region U
 Stable point S must be within 200-100 m for best results with ATR in the RT
S
 Use Antenna/Prism A to provide orientation for the main RTS in the shelter;
GPS will update the position of RTS
 Updated Position of RTS and the orientation to Antenna/Prism A are used to
correct measurements to targets on the unstable object points

71
Collocating GPS Antenna with RTS (2/2)
 Collocate GPS antennas with 360º prisms and positio
n them on at least 3 stable points (forming reference
points), probably outside the mining region (but within
200-1000 m of the main RTS for best ATR results) an
d do the following
 Sheltered main RTS (in an unstable region) will measure to 3
or more reference points in free station computation to deter
mine its position and orientation before making measurement
s to the targets on the unstable object points
 The reference points are to be positioned so as to form a stro
ng geometry in order to ensure that free station calculates wit
h high accuracy

72
Main Challenges in Using GPS in Open-Pit Mine
s
1. Steep walls – results in poor geometry
2. Large height differences (700 m) between master and ro
ver stations – affects accuracy of positioning
3. Needs for fully automated GPS processor for continuous
update in real-time
4. Multipath problem resulting in accurate measurements
5. Power supply to GPS units (difficult in inaccessible or not
frequently accessed areas)
6. Sheltering instrument in harsh conditions & against vand
alism - Loss of RTS preferred to loss of GPS units

73
 Concerns in Using RTS in Open-Pit Mines

1. Refraction & pointing errors (for pit’s diameter > 1 km) sin
ce long sights are involved (>1 km)
2. Complex behaviour of pit (stability problem) as it respond
s to changes in environment (e.g., excavation, increase i
n water saturation, etc.) – causes instability of instrument
also

74
 Deformation Monitoring of Tunnels
 Interest:
 Movement of tunnel walls (inward, settlement, heave and 3-D disp
lacement)
 Deformation around and ahead of tunnel excavation face
 Deformation (settlement, tilt, lateral displacement & 3-D displacem
ent) at or near ground surface (structures and utilities) – ensure str
uctures at the ground surface are not harmed by tunneling operati
ons
 Causes of tunnel deformation:
 Adverse ground and groundwater regimes
 Large overburden pressures – due to sensitive or utilities in urban
tunnels
 Intense tectonic activities
 Concerns: Mountain region – caving in; Urban – damages to utilities
75
 Tunnel Monitoring Instruments
 Instruments on the ground surface or in the tunne
l
 Ground deformation is likely at the place ahead or clos
e to tunnel face
 install instrument so as not to interfere with support
system (sprayed concrete, steel sets, etc.)
 Geodetic and geotechnical instruments to complem
ent each other
 Geodetic provides absolute 3D coordinates – e.g., t
otal stations on brackets and reflectors
 Geotechnical provides relative displacements in one
direction – e.g., extensometers
76
Vertical Deformation Monitoring and An
alysis
 Special-order or first-order geodetic leveling procedur
es can be used in monitoring object in order to determi
ne:
 Tilts based on height difference measurements in bases of vir
tually limitless lengths between pairs of benchmarks
 Vertical expansion (settlement, uplift, or subsidence)
 Absolute height changes with respect to stable points
 Major problem of differential leveling:
 Vertical atmospheric refraction is a major source of systemati
c errors
 Usual increase in random errors due to rod scale error and se
ttlement of instruments and rods when a large number of setu
ps are involved
77
Vertical Deformation Monitoring with G
PS
 For reasonable results, three-baseline GPS surveys c
an be used
 This method economizes GPS surveys since one can carry o
ut the field operation unassisted
 Three-baseline method is illustrated in Fig. 9.14 with points C
1, C2, C3 representing control points with continuously operati
ng GPS receivers and point P as the point whose position is t
o be determined

78
 Three-Baseline GPS Approach
• Set up GPS receiver on the monitoring point P and determine
its position by measuring three GPS baselines B1, B2 and B3
• The duration of observation sessions must be up to 12 h in order t
o achieve sub-centimeter accuracy in vertical positioning at 95%
confidence level

Fig. 9.14
79
Tilt, Strain and Curvature Determination from
Leveling

 Tilt – deviation () of a surface relative to horizontal refer

ence surface (Fig. 9.15a)
 Inclination – deviation () of a surface relative to vertical
plane (Fig. 9.15b)
 Advantage of using geodetic approach over geotechnical
approach in tilt determination
 limitless length of base is possible with geodetic approach unlike
in geotechnical approach where short bases are usually involved
 Accuracy of 0.1“ in tilt is possible over 1 km with geodetic metho
d

80
 Tilt and Inclination
Based on Fig. 9.15 (a), the tilt angle  (in radians) can be determined
by geodetic leveling as


h 1
2t2 
h1 
2t1

s1

Leveling between
points P1 and P2
can be done along
any route

Fig. 9.15
81
 Horizontal Strain and Curvature
 Deformation tolerances for assessing impact of ground s
ubsidence on infrastructure are usually based on criteria:
 tilt (vertical displacement)
 horizontal strain (or horizontal displacements
 Curvature of subsidence trough
 Subsidence has not significantly impacted surface struct
ures if the following are satisfied:
 tilt and horizontal strain around the structures have not exceeded
deformation tolerance of 2.5 and 1.5 mm/m, respectively
 radius of ground curvature around the structures is larger than 2
0 km
 Consider points P1, P2 and P3 located on a subsidence b
owl (Fig. 9.16)

82
 Tilt, Strain and Curvature of Subsidence
Bowl
• Tilt (T), Strain () and curvature of subsidence bowl (K) can be given as

T
dh2dh1 (9.70)
S


dx2dx1
(9.71)
S

K
 1
T2 T
(9.72)
L

83
 Integrated Leveling Surveys (1/2)
 Geodetic leveling surveys in a gallery of a dam can be u
sed to determine tilt and absolute height changes of the
dam structures
 The setup of level instruments in Fig. 9.17 can be used t
o determine elevations of unknown points and the boreh
ole extensometer collar location
 The points (e.g., Pi and Pj) are monitored with the setup after to
determine relative movements of the points
 Control is taken from known benchmark (BM)
 Two scales (one at upper floor and the other at lower floor) attac
hed to suspended plumbline are used

84
Integrated Leveling Surveys (2/2)


hk
i
j j
k
E k
E
i
(9.73)


h
h
k
h
i
j
k
i
j
1
i
j (9.74)

For k = 1,…n: k
y 
h 
k
ij

Fig. 9.17
85
 Tilt and Strain Rate Determination
• A plot of yk against time xk can be fitted with a sinusoid to derive
vertical displacement rate (mm/year)

• When the displacement rate is divided by the horizontal separation

between Pi and Pj tilt rate (mm/m/year) is obtained
• When the displacement rate is divided by the vertical separation
between Pi and Pj extension or strain rate (mm/m/year) is obtained

• Equation (9.74) can be expressed from Fig. 9.17 (given that

Δhab will always be constant) as



h

h

k
h
i
j

h

h i
a b
j
k
i
a b
j
1
(9.79)

86