Data and Computer Comm. Professor George: Stallings - Chapter 16 Wired (A.k.a. High-Speed) Local-Area Networks

EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004
EEL4595
Data and Computer Comm.
Professor George
Stallings – Chapter 16
Wired (a.k.a. High-Speed)
Local-Area Networks
NOTE: Many figures and other materials in this presentation are borrowed from
required and reference textbooks cited on the class web page.
1
IEEE 802.3
Ethernet
Early sketch of Ethernet drawn by Bob Metcalfe in

the mid 1970s while at Xerox PARC.
2
Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
CSMA/CD
 Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision
Detection
First developed by Xerox – “Ethernet”
 Basis for IEEE Std 802.3
802.3 Medium Access Control
 Random Access
Stations access medium randomly
 Contention
Stations contend for time on medium
3
ALOHA
Precursor to CSMA/CD is Aloha network
 Packet radio applications
 Random access, contention
Characteristics
 When station has frame, it sends
 Then station listens (for max round-trip time) plus small increment
 If ACK received, all is fine
 If not, then retransmit
 If no ACK after repeated transmissions, give up
Error checking at receiver
 Frame check sequence (as in HDLC)
 If frame OK and address matches receiver, send ACK
 Frame may be damaged by noise or by another station transmitting at
same time (collision)
 Any overlap of frames causes collision
Studies showed very limited performance
 Max channel utilization of ~18%
4
Slotted ALOHA
Extended form of Aloha
Characteristics
 Time in uniform slots equal to frame transmission time
 Need central clock (or other sync mechanism)
 Transmission begins at slot boundary
 Frames either miss or overlap/collide totally
Better than Aloha, but still limited
 Max channel utilization of ~37%
5
CSMA
Aloha schemes failed to use key feature of LANs
 Between stations, propagation time << transmission time (i.e. a << 1)
CSMA leverages this feature
 All stations almost immediately know when a transmission has started!
CSMA characteristics
 First listen for clear medium (carrier sense)
 If medium busy, wait (e.g. until idle); when medium idle, transmit
 But, if two stations start at about same instant, collision occurs
 To handle potential collision
Wait reasonable time (round-trip time + contention to put ACK on network)
If no ACK received, assume collision and retransmit
Max utilization far exceeds Aloha schemes
 How high depends upon two parameters
Propagation time (medium length) and frame length
Longer frame and/or shorter propagation gives better utilization
Options in MAC for simple CSMA related to persistence
 Non-persistent CSMA (selfless)
 1-persistent CSMA (selfish)
 p-persistent CSMA (hybrid)
6
Persistence in CSMA
Non-persistent protocol
 If medium is idle, then transmit
 If medium is busy, wait random time and try again
 Problem: wasted capacity (medium often left idle at end of a transmission even if
station(s) are waiting to transmit)
1-persistent protocol
 If medium is idle, then transmit
 If medium is busy, listen until idle then immediately transmit
 Problem: if >1 stations waiting, collision is guaranteed
Access sorted out after collision
p-persistent protocol – attempt at a compromise

 If medium is idle, then transmit with probability p, and delay one time unit (e.g.
max prop. delay on LAN) with probability (1-p)
 If medium is busy, listen until idle then repeat above
 If transmission is delayed one time unit, then start again
 Problem: different values of p are good for different scenarios
Consider LAN with n stations
Under heavy load, we want n  p < 1  small value of p
Under light load, small value of p makes stations wait longer to attempt transmission 
long delays
e.g. p = 0.1, at low load a station will wait on avg. 9 time units before transmitting!
7
CSMA/CD
Glaring inefficiency with CSMA
 Collision occupies medium for duration of
transmission of both damaged frames
 For long frames (relative to propagation time), wasted
capacity can be considerable
Can improve using Collision Detection (CD)
 Stations listen while transmitting
 If collision detected, cease transmitting
Summary
1. If medium idle then transmit, otherwise go to step 2
2. If busy, listen for and await idle, then transmit
3. If collision detected, jam then cease transmission
4. After jam, wait random time then start from step 1
8
CSMA/CD rules for transmitter

How does transmitter proceed?
 If medium idle, transmit
 If busy, listen for idle, then transmit (i.e.1-persistent)
 If collision detected, jam then cease transmission
Brief jamming signal used to ensure all stations see collision
and cease transmission
 After jam, wait random time then start again
Binary exponential backoff
For repeated collisions, after each the mean value of random
delay is doubled; after some max. (e.g. 16 attempts), stop and
report error
 Thus, as congestion increases, stations back off by
larger amounts to reduce probability of collision
9
Persistence and Backoff in 802.3

IEEE 802.3 uses 1-persistent
Both non-persistent and p-persistent have performance problems
1-persistent (p = 1) seems more unstable than p-persistent

 Greed of stations
 But wasted time due to collisions is short (if frames long relative to
propagation delay
 With random backoff, unlikely to collide on next tries
 To ensure backoff maintains stability, Ethernet uses binary exponential
backoff
1-persistent algorithm with binary exponential backoff is reasonably

efficient over wide range of loads
 Low load: 1-persistence ensures station can seize channel once idle
 High load: at least as stable as other techniques
 Backoff algorithm gives last-in, first-out effect
 Stations with few collisions transmit first
10
CSMA/CD Operation
11
Collision Detection (CD)

Characteristics
 On baseband bus, collision produces higher signal voltage swings than
signal from a single transmitter
 Collision detected if cable signal exceeds threshold
 But, signal attenuated as a function of distance
Two stations far apart could be such that signal strength of collision (near +
far signals) may not exceed the CD threshold
Another reason why distance is limited in shared-medium Ethernet
 For twisted pair (star topology), situation for hub is simpler
Activity on more than one port implies a collision
Special collision presence signal sent out until all ports idle
Detection time of CD in CSMA/CD
 Worst case is twice the end-to-end propagation delay
Station A transmits
Station D transmits an instant before A’s frame gets to D
D sees collision almost immediately
A unaware until collision propagates all the way back to A
 Frames should be long enough for detection prior to end of transmission
 Else, with shorter frames, no CD and performance same as CSMA
12
MAC Frame Format of 802.3
 
Preamble: alternating 0s and 1s for bit synch.

SFD: sequence 10101011 (start of frame)
Length: specifies # of octets in LLC data field
Pad: Added to ensure frame long enough for CD
FCS: covers all fields ahead except preamble and SFD
13
MAC Frame Format of 802.3 (cont.)
We are looking at MAC frames here!

Remember – MAC and LLC duties are different
 MAC
On transmission, assemble data into frame with address and
error-detection fields
On reception, disassemble frame, perform address
recognition, and perform error detection
Govern access to LAN transmission medium
 LLC
Provide i/f to higher layers
Perform flow control
Perform error control
14
10 Mb/s Ethernet PHY Layer
15
100 Mb/s Fast Ethernet

Use IEEE 802.3 MAC protocol and frame format
100BASE-X uses physical medium spec. from
FDDI
 Two physical links between nodes
Transmission and reception
 100BASE-TX uses STP or Cat. 5 UTP
May require new cable
 100BASE-FX uses optical fiber
 100BASE-T4 can use Cat. 3, voice-grade UTP
Uses four twisted-pair lines between nodes
Data transmission uses three pairs in one direction at a time
Star-wire topology
 Similar to 10BASE-T
16
Fast Ethernet Options
17
100 Mb/s Fast Ethernet PHY Layer
18
100BASE-X Media
Two physical medium specifications
100BASE-TX
 Two pairs of twisted-pair cable
 One pair for transmission and one for reception
 STP and Category 5 UTP allowed
 MLT-3 signaling scheme is used
100BASE-FX
 Two optical fiber cables
 One for transmission and one for reception
 Intensity modulation used to convert 4B/5B-NRZI code group
stream into optical signals
 1 represented by pulse of light
 0 by either absence of pulse or very low intensity pulse
19
100BASE-T4
100-Mbps over lower-quality Cat 3 UTP
 Taking advantage of large installed base
 Cat 5 optional
 Does not transmit continuous signal between packets
 Useful in battery-powered applications
Cannot get 100 Mbps on single twisted pair
 Data stream split into three separate streams
Each with an effective data rate of 33.33 Mbps
 Four twisted pairs used
 Data transmitted and received using three pairs
 Two pairs configured for bidirectional transmission
NRZ encoding not used
 Would require signaling rate of 33 Mbps on each pair
 Does not provide synchronization
 Ternary signaling scheme (8B6T)
20
Full-Duplex Operation
Traditional Ethernet is half duplex
 Either transmit or receive but not both simultaneously
With full-duplex, station can transmit and receive
simultaneously
Fast Ethernet in full-duplex mode, theoretical transfer
rate is 200 Mb/s
Attached stations must have full-duplex adapter cards
Use L2 switch instead of hub
 Each station constitutes separate collision domain
 In fact, no collisions
 CSMA/CD algorithm no longer needed
 802.3 MAC frame format used
 Attached stations can continue CSMA/CD
21
Gigabit Ethernet
GigE simply a new medium and transmission spec. within 802.3
Retains much from its predecessors
 Same CSMA/CD frame format and MAC protocol as 10 and 100 Mb/s
predecessors in 802.3
 Compatible with 100BASE-T and 10BASE-T
For GigE with shared-media hub, two enhancements
 Carrier extension (invisible padding)
Appends special symbols to end of short MAC frames ensuring frame length
of transmission longer than propagation time at 1 Gb/s
 Frame bursting
Allows multiple short frames transmitted consecutively (up to a limit) w/o
relinquishing control for CSMA/CD between frames
With switched GigE, these enhancements not needed
Signal encoding scheme is 8B/10B (fiber)
22
Example: GigE Configurations
23
Gigabit Ethernet – Physical (1)

1000BASE-SX
 Short wavelength, multimode fiber
1000BASE-LX
 Long wavelength, multimode or single-mode
fiber
1000BASE-CX
 Copper jumpers <25m, shielded twisted pair
1000BASE-T
 4 pairs of Cat-5 UTP, <100m
24
Gigabit Ethernet – Physical (2)
PCS = Physical Coding Sublayer

PMA = Physical Medium Attachment
25
GBIC
Gigabit interface converter (GBIC) allows
network managers to configure switch on a port-
by-port basis for various physical interfaces
26
GigE Distance Chart
27
10GigE: 10 Gb/s Ethernet!

Many potential uses, such as:
 High-speed, local backbone interconnection between large-capacity
switches
 Server farm
 Campus wide connectivity
 Enables Internet service providers (ISPs) and network service providers
(NSPs) to create very high-speed links at very low cost between co-
located carrier-class switches and routers
 Allows construction of (MANs) and WANs
Connect geographically dispersed LANs between campuses or points of
presence (PoPs)
 Ethernet competes with ATM and other WAN technologies
 10GigE provides substantial value over other technology options
Initially expensive (as usual), but economy of scale will kick in
 In 2003, 10GigE NIC ~$7-10K, switch ~$100K+; much drop in one year
28
10GigE Advantages
No expensive, bandwidth-consuming conversion
between Ethernet packets and ATM cells et al.
Network is Ethernet, end to end
IP and Ethernet together offer QoS and traffic policing
approach ATM
Advanced traffic engineering technologies available to
users and providers
Variety of standard optical interfaces (wavelengths and
link distances) specified for 10 Gb/s Ethernet
Optimizing operation and cost for LAN, MAN, or WAN
29
10GigE Links
Maximum link distances cover 300 m to 40 km
Full-duplex mode only
10GBASE-S (short):
 850 nm on multimode fiber
 Up to 300 m
10GBASE-L (long)
 1310 nm on single-mode fiber
 Up to 10 km
10GBASE-E (extended)
 1550 nm on single-mode fiber
 Up to 40 km
10GBASE-LX4:
 1310 nm on single-mode or multimode fiber
 Up to 10 km
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) bit stream across four light waves
30
10GigE Distance Options
31
IEEE 802.5
Token Ring
32
Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

Developed from IBM's commercial token ring
 Because of IBM's presence, token ring gained broad acceptance
 But never achieved popularity of Ethernet
 Legacy technology; market share likely to decline
MAC protocol
 Small frame (token) circulates when idle
 Station waits for token
 Changes one bit in token to make it SOF for data frame
 Appends rest of data frame
 Frame makes round trip and is absorbed by transmitting station
 Station then inserts new token when transmission has finished and
leading edge of returning frame arrives
 Light loads: some inefficiency from waiting on token
 Heavy loads: round-robin effect is very effective in both efficiency and
fairness
Token ring advantage is flexible control over access
 Can serve as basis for schemes to regulate access and provide for
priority and guaranteed bandwidth services
33
Token
Ring
Operation
34
Token Ring MAC Frame
Token and data frames with priority; may reserve future

Set if any repeater detects error
token via reservation
A and C differentiate 3 results to sender (A=C=0 means dest. N/A,

A=1 C=0 means dest. exists, A=C=1 means frame received); A
and C bits duplicated since not covered by FCS
35
Token Ring Priority

802.5 includes priority mechanism
 8 levels of priority and reservation (3-bit fields)
Scheme
 Station must wait for token with priority LTE that of frame it wants to
transmit
 While waiting, may reserve future token by modifying reservation field of
passing data frame if our frame’s priority is higher than value currently in
reservation field
 When station seizes token, sets reservation field of frame to 0 and
leaves priority field unaltered
 After transmission of frame(s), station issues new token with appropriate
priority and reservation fields
Other features
 When new token is issued, it will be at reserved priority level
 Station that upgraded priority level responsible for downgrading it to
former level when all higher-priority stations are finished
When that station sees token at higher priority return after its transmission,
assumes there is no more higher-priority traffic waiting so it downgrades
36
Priority
Scheme
37
Other 802.5 features (1)

Early Token Release (ETR) option
 Immediately after frame transmitted, issue token
 Useful when frame shorter than ring bit-length
No waiting, makes better use of ring capacity
 However, access delay for priority traffic may suffer
when ring heavily loaded with small frames
Station issues token before it can read reservation bits in
frame it just transmitted
Thus, priority mechanism somewhat diminished by ETR
 Stations w/ and w/o ETR are interoperable in same
ring
38
Other 802.5 features (2)

Dedicated Token Ring (DTR)
 DTR spec. defines use of stations and concentrators in switched
mode
Where central hub acting as switch
As opposed to simple hub in star-ring topology
 Dedicated full-duplex, point-to-point links
 Concentrator acts as frame-level repeater
Not bit-level repeater as before
 No token passing (i.e. dedicated token)
 Used for 100 Mb/s token ring (HSTR)
 Optional for 4 and 16 Mb/s token rings
IEEE 802.5v - Gigabit Token Ring (2001)
 Like GigE, based on Fibre Channel physical-layer technology
 Fiber or copper
 8B/10B encoding
 Leverages GigE economy of scale, retains TR advantages
39
802.5 PHY Layer
40
Fiber Distributed
Data Interface (FDDI)
41
FDDI
Another form of token-ring network
Single or dual rings
 Secondary ring in case of primary ring failure
 Single- or dual-ring station interfaces
LAN and MAN applications
Some basic characteristics
 100 Mb/s per ring (predates HSTR)
 Data symbols defined in 4-bit chunks
 Optical fiber, UTP, or STP
2km x 100 repeaters = 200km max. length (fiber)
100m x 100 repeaters = 10km max. length (TP)
 4B/5B encoding (fiber), MLT-3 (TP)
 Many similarities to 802.5, but some clear exceptions
802.5 uses reservation and priority fields
FDDI uses capacity allocation
42
MAC Frame Format of FDDI

12
• FC indicates whether sync or async frame (more later), length of addresses

in use, type of frame (LLC, MAC control, or reserved frame), etc.
• May have mixture of 16- and 48-bit address frames on same network
• DAs may be unique address, multicast group address, or bcast address
• FCS covers FC, DA, SA, and info fields
43
FDDI MAC Protocol

Ignoring capacity allocation, FDDI MAC
protocol virtually same as 802.5 except:
 Station seizes token by aborting (failing to
repeat) token transmission
 Once token captured, one or more data
frames transmitted
 New token released as soon as transmission
finished (as with ETR in 802.5)
44
FDDI Example (1)
45
FDDI
Example
(2)
46
Capacity Allocation in FDDI

Scheme to accommodate mixture of
stream and bursty traffic
Two types of traffic defined in FDDI
 Synchronous frames (allocated)
Each station allocated portion of total capacity (0)
This allocation is used for its synchronous frames
 Asynchronous frames (unallocated)
Capacity not allocated, or allocated but not used,
for synch. frames used for asynchronous frames
Based on availability
47
Fibre Channel
48
Fibre Channel - Background

I/O channel
 Direct point-to-point or multipoint comm. link
 Hardware-based solution
 High speed
 Very short distance
 User data moved from source buffer to dest. buffer
Network connection
 Interconnected access points
 Software-based protocols in solution (but h/w too!)
 Flow control, error detection, and error recovery
 Manages transfers between end systems over
varying distances (LAN, MAN, WAN)
49
Fibre Channel
Best of both technologies; storage-area network
Channel-oriented
 Data-type qualifiers for routing frame payload into
particular interface buffers
 Link-level constructs associated with individ. I/O ops
 Protocol interface specs to support existing I/O
architectures
e.g. SCSI
Network-oriented
 Full multiplexing between multiple destinations
 Peer-to-peer connectivity
 Internetworking to other connection technologies
50
Fibre Channel Elements

Basic terminology
 End systems – Nodes
Each has one or more N_ports
 Switched elements - the network or fabric
Each switch has multiple F_ports
 Communication across point-to-point links
 Scales in terms of data rate, N_ports, distance
 Original not concerned with media-access
issues (FCS), but later variant is (FCAL)
FCAL uses L_ports
51
Fibre Channel Network
52
FCS vs. FCAL
53
Fibre Channel Protocol Arch.

FC-0 Physical Media
 Optical fiber for longer distance
 Coaxial, high-speed short distance
 STP for lower-speed short distance
FC-1 Transmission Protocol
 8B/10B signal encoding
FC-2 Framing Protocol
 Topologies
 Framing formats, flow and error control
 Sequences and exchanges (logical grouping of frames)
FC-3 Common Services
 Including multicasting
FC-4 Mapping
 Mapping of channel and network services onto Fiber Channel
e.g. IEEE 802, ATM, IP, SCSI
54
Fibre Channel PHY Layer Options
55
Alternative Topologies
Point-to-point topology
 Only two ports
 Directly connected, with no intervening switches
 No routing
Arbitrated loop topology (FCAL)
 Simple, low-cost topology
 Up to 126 nodes in loop
 Operates roughly equivalent to token ring
Topologies, transmission media, and data rates
may be combined
56
Appendices
16A: Digital Signal Encoding for LANs
 Extends our previous studies on signal encoding
4B/5B-NRZI
MLT-3
8B6T
8B/10B
16B: Performance Issues

 Extends our previous studies on network link util.
Effect of Propagation Delay and Transmission Rate
Simple Performance Models of CSMA/CD and Token
Passing
57

Data and Computer Comm. Professor George: Stallings - Chapter 16 Wired (A.k.a. High-Speed) Local-Area Networks

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EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Early sketch of Ethernet drawn by Bob Metcalfe in

p-persistent protocol – attempt at a compromise

CSMA/CD rules for transmitter

Persistence and Backoff in 802.3

1-persistent (p = 1) seems more unstable than p-persistent

1-persistent algorithm with binary exponential backoff is reasonably

Collision Detection (CD)

MAC Frame Format of 802.3

Preamble: alternating 0s and 1s for bit synch.

MAC Frame Format of 802.3 (cont.)

We are looking at MAC frames here!

10 Mb/s Ethernet PHY Layer

100 Mb/s Fast Ethernet

Fast Ethernet Options

100 Mb/s Fast Ethernet PHY Layer

Example: GigE Configurations

Gigabit Ethernet – Physical (1)

Gigabit Ethernet – Physical (2)

PCS = Physical Coding Sublayer

GigE Distance Chart

10GigE: 10 Gb/s Ethernet!

Full-duplex mode only

10GigE Distance Options

Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

Token Ring MAC Frame

Token and data frames with priority; may reserve future

A and C differentiate 3 results to sender (A=C=0 means dest. N/A,

Token Ring Priority

Other 802.5 features (1)

Other 802.5 features (2)

802.5 PHY Layer

MAC Frame Format of FDDI

• FC indicates whether sync or async frame (more later), length of addresses

FDDI MAC Protocol

FDDI Example (1)

Capacity Allocation in FDDI

Fibre Channel - Background

Fibre Channel Elements

Fibre Channel Network

FCS vs. FCAL

Fibre Channel Protocol Arch.

Fibre Channel PHY Layer Options

16B: Performance Issues

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