Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
CHAPTER 3
REVIEW SAFETY
STATISTICS
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
Events that are associated with or influence fatality rates – a safety indicator is a measurable
safety factor
The probability of an accident is significantly higher during takeoff or landing than any other
phases of flight
Risk is a good indicator of probability of death due to travelling but commercial aviation
fatalities rates are poor indicators of short –term risk changes
Accidents exceed fatalities in numbers, they are still quite small – accidents can vary
significantly from one year to the next hence accident rates are poor indicators of short term
estimates of risk trends
Aviation accidents can vary greatly – hence the classifications of accidents as major, injury or
damage or more popular with the insurance as hull loss and non-hull loss
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
ACCIDENTS AND ONBOARD FATALITIES BY PHASE OF FLIGHT, HULL-LOSS AND/OR FATAL ACCIDENT
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
• Parking: this phase ends and starts when the aircraft respectively begins or stops
moving forward under its own power.
• Taxi: this phase includes both taxi-out and taxi-in. Taxi-out starts when the aircraft
begins moving forward under its own power and ends when it reaches the takeoff
position. Taxi-in normally starts after the landing roll-out, when the aircraft taxis to the
parking area. It may, in some cases, follow a taxi-out.
• Takeoff run: this phase begins when the crew increases thrust for the purpose of lift-
off. It ends when an initial climb is established or the crew aborts its takeoff.
• Aborted takeoff: this phase starts when the crew reduces thrust during the takeoff
run to stop the aircraft. It ends when the aircraft is stopped or when it is taxied off the
runway.
• Initial climb: this phase begins at 35 feet above the runway elevation. It normally
ends with the climb to cruise. It may, in some instances, be followed by an approach.
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
• Climb to cruise: this phase begins when the crew establishes the aircraft at a defined speed and
configuration enabling the aircraft to increase altitude for the cruise. It normally ends when the
aircraft reaches cruise altitude. It may, in some cases end with the initiation of a descent.
• Cruise: this phase begins when the aircraft reaches the initial cruise altitude. It ends when the
crew initiates a descent for the purpose of landing.
• Initial descent: this phase starts when the crew leaves the cruise altitude in order to land. It
normally ends when the crew initiates changes in the aircraft’s configuration and/or speed in view
of the landing. It may, in some cases end with a cruise or climb to cruise phase.
• Approach: this phase starts when the crew initiates changes in the aircraft’s configuration and/or
speed in view of the landing. It normally ends when the aircraft is in the landing configuration and
the crew is dedicated to land on a particular runway. It may, in some cases, end with the initiation
of an initial climb or go-around phase.
• Go-around: this phase begins when the crew aborts the descent to the planned landing runway
during the approach phase. It ends with the initiation of an initial climb or when speed and
configuration are established at a defined altitude.
• Landing: this phase begins when the aircraft is in the landing configuration and the crew is
dedicated to land on a particular runway. It ends when the aircraft’s speed is decreased to taxi
speed.
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
Human factor is clearly and consistently the most frequent cause of incidents and accidents in the
airline industry. Total contribution of human error to aviation incidents and accidents can range as
high as 80 to 90 %
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
STATISTICS
The table above was compiled from the PlaneCrashInfo.com accident database and represents 1,015 fatal accidents involving
commercial aircraft, world-wide, from 1950 thru 2010 for which a specific cause was known. Aircraft with 18 or less passengers
aboard, military aircraft , private aircraft and helicopters were excluded.
"Pilot error (weather related)" represents accidents in which pilot error was the cause but brought about by weather related
phenomena. "Pilot error (mechanical related)" represents accidents in which pilot error was the cause but brought about by some
type of mechanical failure. "Other human error" includes air traffic controller errors, improper loading of aircraft, fuel contamination
and improper maintenance procedures. Sabotage includes explosive devices, shoot downs and hijackings. "Total pilot error" is the
total of all three types of pilot error (in green). Where there were multiple causes, the most prominent cause was used.
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
Source: PlaneCrashinfo.com
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
Number Of Fatalities
(Civil Aircraft with 19 or More Passengers)
Source: PlaneCrashinfo.com
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
Top 39 airlines with the best accident rates Top 39 airlines with the best 1
in 19.8 million accident rates 1 in 10.0 million
Bottom 39 with the worst accident rates Bottom 39 with the worst
1 in 1.5 million accident rates 1 in 2.0 million
Survival rate of passengers on aircraft involved in fatal accidents carrying 10+ passengers
Decade % surviving
1930s 21
1940s 20
1950s 24
1960s 19
1970s 25
1980s 34
1990s 35
2000s 24
Purpose of accident investigation – to uncover pervasive, unrecognized causal factors of accidents – the
goal is to help prevent similar accidents from occurring in the future and to recommend control measures
To conduct a preemptive strike on the very first accident to prevent it from occurring by addressing the root cause
of the accident
Incidents and accidents provide after-the-fact that safety was inadequate, accident modeling assists with the
understanding how accidents happen so that measures can be taken to prevent potential hazards from materializing
Primary Safety Factors, Secondary Safety Factors and Tertiary Safety Factors
All five factors are closely interrelated with management plays a predominant role
with mission serves as the target or objective to emphasize
• MAN:
Due to lack of study of human factors – over the years the number
of accidents caused by the machine has declined – those caused
by man have risen proportionally
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
• MEDIUM: (Environment):
Where the aircraft operations take place, equipment used, and personnel work
directly affect safety
Comprise two parts : the natural environment and the artificial environment
A commuter airline operating out of many small airports during winter months has
a completely different mission than the all-cargo carrier flying from New York to
Los Angeles
Each category of operation )mission has certain intrinsic hazards that have to be
accepted
This fact is reflected in the accident rates of the different categories of operation
and is the reason why such rates are usually calculated separately
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
• MANAGEMENT:
Management must not only say the slogan but must be seen
applying it and clearly visible to the staff- although it cost money but
it not only improve the performance of staff but it is cost effective,
reduce waste and increase efficiency of the organization
• REASON’S MODEL
Reason’s model traces the root causes of accidents to errors that occur in
the higher management levels of an organization – these errors are
referred to as latent errors
Reason also feels that any models that show individual operator performance
that attributes to the accident is grossly inadequate. He proposes that
human error is the end result rather than the cause of incidents or accidents
AVIATION SAFETY & SECURITY
RISK MANAGEMENT
A concept that stems largely from financial concerns and a realization that losses from
different areas in a business must be either reduced or accepted
Safety losses stems from costs of accidents that result in fatalities, illness, injuries,
product damage and lost employee and production time
Aircraft accident prevention attempts to minimize the risk posed by safety hazards
The overall process of identifying, evaluating, controlling or reducing, and accepting risk
where management decisions about risk have been identified and analyzed.
It involves conserving assets and minimizing exposure to losses. It means looking ahead
to detect hazards before they lead to losses and taking appropriate action when these risks
cannot be eliminated.
Categorized into three areas they threaten – assets, income and legal liability. In
Aviation accident industry, accidents usually involve all three areas
34
AVIATION SAFETY AND SECURITY
Risk is the combination of the probability of occurrence of the hazard (or loss
potential) and the severity of its effects.
35
END OF PART 3