PRINCIPLE AND WORKING OF INSTRUMENTS

FOR PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, FLOW AND

LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

BY- GHANSHYAM S KAYARKAR (GET) BATCH- K-77

ROLL NO. - 25 SAP ID- 12935
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pressure -
 Pressure is the force exerted per unit area
• Pressure is the action of one force against another force. Pressure is force applied
to, or distributed over, a surface. The pressure P of a force F distributed over an
area A is defined as P = F/A
GAUGE
COMPOUND

ABSOLUTE

BAROMETRIC RANGE

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
NOM. 14.7 PSIA

PRESSURE

TOTAL VACUUM - 0 PSIA

Pressure Instruments

Types of Pressure Instruments

Pressure Gauges (Vacuum, Compound, Absolute, Gauge)
Manometer

Differential Pressure Gauge

Pressure Transmitter (Vacuum, Absolute, Gauge)
Differential Pressure Transmitter

DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER

PRESSURE
GAUGE
Mechanical pressure elements

Diaphragms
Bellows

Material - phosphor bronze, nickel silver and beryllium, copper, stainless

steel, colon leather, nylon, rubberized fabric

Range - Low Pressure up to 20-25 Kg/cm2

Bourdon tube (Pressure gauge)

 Measuring Principle
 Bourdon tube measuring
element is made of a thin-
walled C-shape tube or spirally
wound helical or coiled tube.
When pressure is applied to the
measuring system through the
pressure port (socket), the
pressure causes the Bourdon
tube to straighten itself, thus
causing the tip to move. The
motion of the tip is transmitted
via the link to the movement
which converts the linear
motion of the bourdon tube to a
rotational motion that in turn
causes the pointer to indicate
the measured pressure.
 Material- Phosphor bronze,
Steel, Beryllium, Copper
 Range – 0.5 – 6000 kg/cm2
C Shaped bourdon tube Spiral bourdon tube
Electrical pressure elements
Pressure transducers : Mechanical to Electrical conversion
1. Pressure sensing element- a bellow, diaphragm or bourdon tube

2. Primary conversion element- Converts mechanical action of the

pressure sensing element into an electrical signal, usually resistance or
voltage.

3. Secondary conversion element- It produces a standard signal

according to the needs of the control system.
Piezoresistive (strain gauge) sensors

The change in length of the element

produces changes in the electrical
resistance

RαL/A
Differential capacitance sensors
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) pressure sensor
Manufacturer and Pressure sensing technology
Water traps and pigtail siphons
Pressure pulsation damping

Snubber (needle valve)

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Types of Flowmeters

 Obstructive
 a. Differential pressure flowmeters

 i. Orifice plate
 ii. Venturi
 iii. Pitot tube
 Iv. Nozzle

 b.Variable area flowmeters (Rotameter)

 Non-obstructive

 Electromagnetic flowmeters
 Ultrasonic flowmeters
Differential pressure flowmeters

 Widely used for liquids and gases

 A restriction is in the pipe and the differential pressure developed across
the restriction is measured
 The differential pressure output is calibrated in terms of flow rate
 Based on Bernoulli’s principle
Energy Per Unit Volume Before = Energy Per Unit Volume After
1 1
P1 +
2
r V12 + r gh1 = P2 + 2
r V22 + r gh2
Kinetic Potential
Pressure Energy Energy
Energy Per Unit Per unit
Volume Volume V1, P1
V2, P2
V2 > V1
Increased Fluid Speed
Decrease Fluid Pressure P2 < P1
 By applying Bernoulli’s equation to venture tube, Orifice
plate or flow nozzle we get,
These are a range of
meters that convert
flow rate into a
differential pressure
Orifice Plates

 An orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate with a hole bored in the
centre. It has a tab on one side where the specification of the plate is
stamped. The upstream side of the orifice plate usually has a sharp
edge When an orifice plate is installed in a flow line (usually clamped
between a pair of flanges), increase of fluid flow velocity through the
reduced area at the orifice develops a differential pressure across the
orifice.This pressure is a function of flow rate.
Orifice meter Characteristics

 Least expensive
 Low working life due to wear in the edge
 Generally used for clear fluids, can be use for dilute
slurries with eccentric orifice
HEAD METER THEORY OF OPERATION

23#
 Venturi Tubes

 For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a

venturi tube is usually used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet
cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also minimizes
wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids through
without obstruction.
 Used when higher velocity and pressure recovery is required.
Venturi meter Characteristics

 High range
 Expensive but offer good accuracy (± 1%)
 Lowest permanent pressure loss
 Long working life and almost no maintenance
 Can measure flow of fluid with suspended solids
 High cost
 Normally not available in pipe size below 6 inches
Characteristics of Differential pressure flow meter

 No moving parts, robust,cheap,maintainable

 Well established : Calibration data available
 Permanent head loss
 Non linear
 Generally applicable for clean fluids
 Installation constraints
VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER
(ROTAMETER)

Rotameters are a variable area device. The float

moves up and down in proportion to the fluid flow
rate and the annular area between the float and the
tube wall. As the float rises, the size of the annular
opening increases. As this area increases, the
differential pressure across the float decreases. The
float reaches a stable position when the upward force
exerted by the flowing fluid equals the weight of the
float. Every float position corresponds to a particular
flow rate for a particular fluid's density and viscosity.
For this reason, it is necessary to size the rotameter
for each application. When sized correctly, the flow
rate can be determined by matching the float position
to a calibrated scale on the outside of the rotameter.
Many rotameters come with a built-in valve for
adjusting flow manually.

27#
Characteristics of rotameter

 Low cost
 Good for metering small flow
 Low pressure drop required
 Glass tube type subjected to breakage
 Must be mounted in vertically
 Limited to small pipe size
TEMPERATUE MEASUREMENT
Types of Temperature Instrument

 Bi-metallic Thermometers
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Thermistor
 Thermocouple (T/C)
 Filled Thermal Systems

30#
Bimetallic Thermometers

A Bimetallic Thermometer consists of

an indicating or recording device, a
sensing element and a means for
connecting the two.

Basic example:
Two metal strips expand at different
rates as the temperature changes.
A pointer is attached to the
rotating coil which indicates
the temperature on the dial.

Bimetal Coil
Coil rotation is caused by the
difference in thermal
expansions of the two metals.
31#
Thermocouples (TC’s)

Basic Theory

• It works on Seebeck effect,” An electric current flows in a closed circuit of

two dissimilar metals if their two junctions are at different temperatures”.
• The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and on the
temperature relationship between the junctions.
• With different temperatures at each junction, different voltages are produced
and current flows in the circuit.

Iron (Fe)

100ºC 0ºC

Constantan (CuNi)
Thermocouple Circuit
32#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)

Thermocouple measuring circuit

Equivalent to
80ºC reading
Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)

100ºC 20ºC 0 10
mV
Hot Junction: Constantan (CuNi)
Copper (Cu)

In Process
Cold Junction:
Needs to be held constant to give a
fixed reference. ( early methods
held cold junction at 0ºC using ice
or refrigeration unit).

33#
Thermocouple Operating Range

THERMOCOUPLE EXTENSION WIRE OPERATING

RANGE

MATERIAL ISA MATERIAL COLOR OF INSULATION DEGREE

CEN.

+VE -VE SYM +VE -VE +VE -VE OVERALL

Copper Constantan T Copper Constantan Blue Red Blue 0 to 400

Iron Constantan J Iron Constantan White Red Black -270 to 760

Chromel Alumel K Chromel Alumel Yellow Red Yellow 0 to 1372

Chromel Constantan E Chromel Constantan Purple Red Purple -200 to 860

RTDs
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed.This
property is utilized to measure the temperature.

𝑅 = 𝑅0(1+ ∝ Δ𝑇)
Where, ∝ = Temperature coefficient of resistance
Δ𝑇= Change in temperature

35#
 RTDs

• The most common material is Platinum.

• It’s resistance is 100Ω at 0°Celsius.
– Hence the term “PT100”
• There are other materials available for more unusual temperature ranges such as
nickel, copper, tungsten.

RTD Temp Range ( Deg.

Cent)
PLATINUM 100 to 650 Good linearity,
Chemical inertness
NICKEL -180 to 430 Ni, Cu susceptible
COPPER -200 to 260 to corrosion and
oxidation
TUNGSTEN -270 to 1100

36#
Comparison of RTDs and Thermocouples
Radiation Temperature Detectors
(Pyrometers)

Radiation temperature
detectors (Pyrometers) are
non contact devices. They
are used to measure the
temperature of something
which is difficult to reach by
other means, (eg. Boiler).
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Level measurement Techniques

 Level gauge
 Float
 Pressure transmitter (Hydrostatics)
 Displacement transmitter
 Capacitive
 Ultrasonic
 Radar
 EWLI
Level gauge

• Simplest indicating Instrument

• Direct indicator for an operator to
monitor
• Basically Two types
• Transparent type
• Reflex type
Magnetic Level Indicator

• The MLI chamber contains magnetic

floats that move up and down with the
level and move the visual indicators in
the column.
• Indicator containing a column of
flippers or rollers
• Flippers having alternate color on back
side
Float type

The float and counter weight are

connected together by a wire on pulleys.
The system is in balance with the float
on the surface of the liquid. If the level
rises, the float rises and the counter
weight falls to the new balance point. If
the level falls the counter weight rises.
The counter weight has a pointer which
indicates the level on a scale on the
outside of the tank
Pressure transmitter (HYDROSTATIC)
 Principle
Any column of liquid exerts a force at the base of the column
because of its own weight. This force, called hydrostatic pressure or head
pressure, can be measured in pressure units.
Gravity

Hydrostatic Pressure = Height x Specific

gravity
Level measurement in close tank

 In closed vessels, the pressure above the

liquid will affect the pressure measured at
the bottom. The pressure at the bottom of
the vessel is equal to the height of the
liquid multiplied by the specific gravity of
the liquid plus the vessel pressure.

 To measure true level ,the vessel pressure

must be subtracted from the measurement.
This is accomplished by making a pressure
tap at the top of the vessel & connecting
this to the low pressure side of the dp
transmitter. Vessel pressure is now equally
applied to both high & low pressure sides
of the transmitter. The resulting differential
pressure is proportional to liquid height
multiplied by the specific gravity.
 Displacer transmitter
 Displacers work on the Archimedes Principle,
when a body is immersed in a fluid it loses
weight equal to that of the fluid displaced. By
detection of the apparent weight of the
immersed displacer, a level measurement can
be inferred.
These forces act upon the spring supported
displacer causing vertical motion of the core
within a linear variable differential transformer.
As the core position changes with liquid level,
voltages are induced across the secondary
windings of the LVDT. These signals are
processed in the electronic circuitry and used
to control the current in the 4-20 mA current
loop.
Capacitance Level measurement

A capacitor is formed when a level sensing

electrode is installed in a vessel. The metal rod of
the electrode acts as one plate of the capacitor
and the tank wall acts as the other plate. As level
rises, the air or gas normally surrounding the
electrode is displaced by material having a
different dielectric constant RF (radio frequency)
capacitance instruments detect this

C = K (A / D )
where:
C = Capacitance in Pico Farads
K = Dielectric constant of material
A = Area of plates in square inches
D = Distance between the plates in inches Vessel
Ultrasonic Level measurement

An ultrasonic level transmitter is mounted on

the top of the tank and transmits an ultrasonic
pulse down into the tank. This pulse, travelling at
the speed of sound, is reflected back to the
transmitter from the liquid surface. The
transmitter measures the time delay between
the transmitted and received echo signal

Distance = (Speed of sound x time delay) / 2

Pressure and Temperature Range of Different Level
m/m Technology
Technology Pressure Temperature
Float switch Full vacuum to 200 -60 to 400˚c
bar
Pressure Full vacuum to 276 -40 to 193˚c
bar
Pressure with seal Full vacuum to 276 -73 to 316˚c
bar
Displacer Full vacuum to 276 -40 to 482˚c
bar
Capacitance Full vacuum to 345 -129 to 482˚c
bar
Ultrasonic non -0.25 to 3 bar -30 to 70˚c
contacting
Non contacting Full vacuum to 55 bar -40 to 400˚c
Radar
Guided Wave radar Full vacuum to 345 -196 to 400˚
bar
full vacuum= -14.7 psig
Electronic water level indicator
 Technology uses the principle of resistivity discrimination between steam
and water to provide a clear indication of water level in a boiler drum.
 Electronic discrimination circuit provide to detect
Less than 0.1 MΩ for water
Greater than 0.1 MΩ for steam
PARAMETER AND THEIR APPROXIMATE MEASUREMENT
POINTS IN A THERMAL POWER PLANT

Parameter Types of instruments/sensors Approx.

No.
Pressure Bourdon tube, Diaphragm, Bellows 375-400
elements – all with transmitter
Temperature Thermocouple and RTD 700-750
Flow Orifice,venturi,Rotameter etc. 75-100
Level Differential pressure method, float 75-100
Level indicators, Displacement
transmitter, Ultrasonic, Capacitance