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Practical
Temperature
Measurements
001
Agenda
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
Optical
Pyrometer
RTD
Thermistor, IC
Thermocouple
Summary & Examples
A1
What is Temperature?
002
How is heat transferred?
Conduction
Metal coffee cup
Convection
Radiation
003
The Dewar
004
Thermal Mass
Sensor
005
Temperature errors
What is YOUR normal temperature?
Thermometer accuracy, resolution
Contact time
Thermal mass of thermometer, tongue
Human error in reading
1600 1700
ad ad
12 96
Fahrenheit
1 Instrument
0 Maker
12*8=96
points
Galileo: First
Early Hg:
temp. sensor Repeatable
pressure- thermometers
One
sensitive Not
standard
not repeatable repeatable
scale
No good way
to calibrate 007
The 1700's: Standardization
1700 ad 1800 ad
0 100
Thomson effect
Absolute zero
100 0
Celsius:
Common,
"Centigrade"
repeatable
calibration scale
reference points
008
1821: It was a very good year
1800 ad 1900 ad
The Seebeck
effect
Pt 100
d @ O deg.C
009
The 1900's: Electronic sensors
1900 ad 2000 ad
1 uA/K
Thermistor
IC sensor
010
Temperature scales
Absolute Freezing Boiling point
zero point H2O H O2
Celsius 0 100
-273.15
"Standard" is "better":
Reliable reference
points
Easy to understand
011
IPTS '90: More calibration points
– 273.16: TP – 1357.77: FP
– H2O
234.3156: TP – Cu
1337.33: FP
Hg – Au
1234.93: FP
Ag
Large gap – 933.473: FP
Al
– 692.677: FP
– 83.8058: TP Zn
Ar – 505.078: FP
– 54.3584: TP Sn
– O2
24.5561: TP – 429.7485: FP
– 20.3:
Ne BP In
– 17 Liq/vapor
H2 – 302.9146: MP
– 13.81
H2 TP
– 3 to 5: Vapor Ga
H2
He 012
Agenda
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
Optical
Pyrometer
RTD
Thermistor, IC
Thermocouple
Summary & Examples
A2
Bimetal thermometer
013
Liquid thermometer; Paints
100
0 Thermally-sensitive paints
Irreversible change
Low resolution
Useful in hard-to-measure area
Liquid-filled thermometer
Accurate over a small range
Accuracy & resolution= f(length)
Range limited by liquid
Fragile
Large thermal mass
Slow
014
Agenda
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
Optical
Pyrometer
RTD
Thermistor, IC
Thermocouple
Summary & Examples
A3
Optical Pyrometer
Infrared Radiation-sensitive
Photodiode or photoresistor
Accuracy= f{emissivity}
Useful @ very high temperatures
Non-contacting
Very expensive
Not very accurate
015
Agenda
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
Optical
Pyrometer
RTD
Thermistor, IC
Thermocouple
Summary & Examples
A4
Resistance Temperature Detector
016
RTD Equation
300
200 Nonlinearity
100
T
0 200 400 600 800
017
Measuring an RTD: 2-wire method
Rx Rlead
100d +
Rlead V I ref= 5 mA
Pt -
018
The 4-Wire technique
Rx
100d +
Rlead=1d V I ref= 5 mA
-
R= Iref * Rx
Error not a function of R in source or sense
leads
No error due to changes in lead R
019
Offset compensation
Voffset
100d +
V I ref (switched)
-
V
R=
I
020
Bridge method
100 d
d
1000
V
100d
d
1000 High resolution (DMM
stays on most sensitive
range)
Nonlinear output
Bridge resistors too
close to heat source
021
3-Wire bridge
1000d 100d
Rlead 1
V
Sense wire
3-Wire
1000d Rlead 2 PRTD
100d
Keeps bridge away from heat source
Break DMM lead (dashed line); connect to
RTD through 3rd "sense" wire
If Rlead 1= Rlead 2, sense wire makes
error small
Series resistance of sense wire causes no
error
022
Agenda
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
Optical
Pyrometer
RTD
Thermistor, IC
Thermocouple
Summary & Examples
A5
Electrical sensors: Thermistor
Rlead=1
d +
5k d Rlead=1d
V I= 0.1 mA
-
023
I.C. Sensor
I= 1 uA/K
+ High output
5V - 100 d Very linear
Accurate @
V = 1mV/K
room ambient
960d
Limited range
Cheap
024
Summary: Absolute T devices
RTD I.C.
Thermistor
A6
Thermocouples
The Gradient Theory
Ta Tx
The WIRE is the
V sensor, not the
junction
Tx
The Seebeck
coefficient (e) is a
V= e(T) dT
function of
Ta temperature
026
Making a thermocouple
Ta
B Tx
V
Two wires make a
A thermocouple
Ta
Tx Ta Voltage output is
nonzero if metals are
V= e dT + e dT not the same
A B
Ta Tx
027
Gradient theory also says...
Ta
A Tx
V
If wires are the
A same type, or if there
Ta is one wire, and
Tx Ta both ends are at the
same temperature,
V= e dT + e dT = 0 output= Zero.
A A
Ta Tx
028
Now try to measure it:
a
Fe
Tx Theoretically,
b Vab= f{Tx-Tab}
Con
But, try to measure it with a DMM:
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx
V
Cu Con
Tx
= V
Cu Con
Result: 3 unequal junctions, all at unknown
temperatures
029
Solution: Reference Thermocouple
Problems: a) 3 different thermocouples,
b) 3 unknown temperatures
Solutions: a) Add an opposing thermocouple
b) Use a known reference temp. Isothermal
block
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx Add Tx
Con
V V Con
Tref
Tref = 0 oC
Cu Fe Cu Fe
030
The Classical Method
Cu Fe
If both Cu junctions are at
Tx same T, the two "batteries"
V Con cancel
Tref Tref is an ice bath
o
=0C (sometimes an electronic ice
Cu Fe bath)
All T/C tables are
referenced to an ice bath
V= f{Tx-Tref}
032
Eliminating the second T/C
Cu Fe
Extend the isothermal block
Tx If isothermal, V1-V2=0
V Con 2
Cu Fe
Tref Tx
Cu Fe V Tref Con
1 2
Cu
1
033
The Algorithm for one T/C
Cu Fe
Tx Measure Tref: RTD,
o
IC or thermistor
Tref ==> Vref @ O C for Type J(Fe-
V Tref Con C)
Know V, Know Vref: Compute Vx
Solve for Tx using Vx
Cu
Compute Vx
Vx=V+Vref V
Vref
0 o Tref Tx
034
Linearization
V
Small sectors
0 o Tref Tx T
2 3 V +.... a9 V
Polynomial: T=a +a
0 1 V +a
2 V +a
3 9
Nested (faster): T=a
0 +V(a
1 +V(a
2 +V(a
3
+.......))))))))) 2
0
Small sectors (faster): T=T +bV+cV
Lookup table: Fastest, most memory
035
Common Thermocouples
mV E
60
K Platinum T/Cs
J N
40 Base Metal T/Cs
20 T RS
deg C
0 500 1000 2000
036
Common Thermocouples
Seebeck
Type Metals Coeff: uV/C
037
Extension Wires Possible problem
here
038
Noise: DMM Glossary
Normal Mode
ac NOISE
HI
DMM
Input Normal Mode
Resistance LO dc SIGNAL
039
Generating noise
Electrostatic Magnetic
Noise Noise
HI
DMM
Normal Mode
Input
Resistance LO dc SIGNAL
040
Eliminating noise
Electrostati Magneti
c c
Noise Noise
HI
DM
M
Inpu Normal Mode
tR L dc SIGNAL
O
Filter, shielding, small loop area
(Caution: filter slows down the
measurement)
HI
DM Make R leak close to
M
Input
R L - +
R O
Common
leak
Mode
Common Mode ac source
Current
041
Magnetic Noise
Magnetic coupling
DMM
Input Induced I
Resistance
Minimize area
Twist leads
Move away from strong fields
042
Reducing Magnetic Noise
Equal and opposite induced currents
DMM
Input
Resistance
043
AC Noise
Electrostatic noise source
Stray capacitances
DMM
Input
Resistance
Inoise
Stray resistances
044
Reducing Electrostatic
AC Noise source
Coupling
HI
DMM
Input
Resistance
LO
Rleak
Shield shunts stray current
For noise coupled to the tip,
Rleak is still important
045
A scanning system for T/Cs
One thermistor,
multiple T/C channels
Noise reduction
CPU linearizes T/C
DMM must be
very high quality
OHMs
Conv.
Isolators
HI I/O
uP (HP-IB,
uP RS-232) To
LO Integrating ROM
Lookup Computer
A/D
Floating Circuitry Grounded Circuitry
046
Errors in the system Ref. Block Thermal gradient
T/C Calibration
Thermal emf & Wire errors
Reference
Thermistor Linearization Extension wire
Ohms algorithm junction error
OHMs measurement
Conv.
Isolators
HI I/O
uP (HP-IB,
uP RS-232)
LO Integrating ROM
A/D Lookup
Floating Circuitry Grounded Circuitry
047
DMM offset, linearity, thermal emf, noise
Physical errors
048
Physical Errors
Surface probe
Make sure thermal mass is much smaller
than that of object being measured
050
Physical errors: Decalibration
350 C
300 C 975 C
200 C 1000 C
100 C
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
Optical
Pyrometer
RTD
Thermistor, IC
Thermocouple
Summary & Examples
A7
The basic 4 temperature sensors
053
Examples
Measurement Sensor
054