Wireless Transmission –

Overview
Applications, systems, and coverage regions
1. Voice 1. broadcast systems
2. Internet access 2. paging systems
3. Web browsing 3. cordless telephony
4. Paging 4. cellular telephone system
5. SMS 5. BANs, PANs and LANs
6. File transfer 6. MANs and WANs
7. Teleconferencing 7. satellite systems
8. Entertainment 8. ad hoc networks
……and many more

Coverage – in-building, campus, city, regional, and global

 Requirements for the services
 How to characterize WCs resulted in fragmentation in industry –
different applications have different requirements
 QoS – typically rate and delay requirements (cross-layer)

Voice Data Video

Delay <100ms - <100ms
Packet Loss <1% 0 <1%
BER 10-3 10-6 10-6
Data Rate 8-32 Kbps 10-100 Mbps 10-1000 Mbps
Traffic Continuous Bursty Continuous
Other parameters may be the range, no. of users, mobility,
Energy consumption, direction of transmission, and spectrum usage…
One-size-fits-all networks and design do not work well
 Wireless Spectrum: usage and allocation
 Exclusive basis – spectrum dedicated to service & operator
(e.g. cellular)
 Shared basis – spectrum allowing multiple operators (e.g.
cordless)
 Free spectrum – to different services as well as operators
(ISM band – 2.4GHz, e.g. WiFi LANs, and Bluetooth
wireless links)

 New approaches:
1. UWB
2. Adaptive spectral usage
 Technical Challenges of Wireless Comm.
 Wired and wireless communications
 Medium
 Capacity
 Communication range
 Delay in transmission
 BER
 Quality
 Interference and crosstalk
 Energy consumption

 Wireless and mobile communications

 A, f, and Ф are fixed with time. In mobile any of three, or all
of three are time dependent – accounts for Doppler shift
 Technical Challenges contd…

 Multipath propagation
 Spectrum limitations
 Energy limitations
 User mobility
 Noise and interference limited systems
 Cellular telephone system
 Limitations in conventional mobile phone system
1. Limited service capability (handoff)
2. Poor service performance (33 channels to MTS / 50 mi dia) – high
blocking probability
3. Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization (each channel can serve
only one user at a time in whole area)

 Cellular came into picture (1971) – spectrally efficient

 AMPS (1983-Bell labs) – first installed system in U.S.
 Many low power Txs, each to serve only a small area called “Cell”
 Each cell is assigned a portion of the available spectrum called
“channels”
 Same channels could be reused in different cells with sufficient
distance
Cellular telephone system
 Geographic region divided into cells
 Frequency/timeslots/codes/ reused at spatially-separated locations
 Co-channel interference between same color cells.
 Base stations/MTSOs coordinate handoff and control functions
 Shrinking cell size increases capacity, as well as networking burden

BASE
STATION
MSC
Overview of Mobile Cellular System
 PSTN
Link designed to
handle many s/gs Signaling Links
Voice Trunks
simultaneously
Mobile Processor
Switching
Center Switch

Voice Trunks
Data Links (control
channel)
Cell Site Base Station
Forward Voice Channel Forward Setup Channel

Reverse Voice Channel Reverse Setup Channel

Mobile Station
Mobile Cellular System Components

- Mobile Station (MS)

- Base Station (BS)

- Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or MTSO

Mobile Station

Components:
- Transmitter
- Receiver
- Antenna
- CPU and Battery
- End User Interface
 Base Station (BS)
- Each cell has a base station at its center.
- Interfaces with MSC using voice trunks.
- Communicates with MS using RF energy.
Functions:
- RF transmission of information to MS and RF reception from MS.
- Voice processing.
- Actual handoff.
Components: - Voice radios
- Setup radios
- Locate radios
- Antennas
- Voice trunks to MSC
- Data link to MSC
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
- Central point of control in the cellular system.
- Controls:
+ All or subset of BS.
+ Interfaces BS to PSTN

Functions:

- Allocation of radio channels and voice trunks to the cellular

system.

- Coordination of paging and handoff.

- Communication with other cellular entities such as Databases

(VLR, HLR, etc.)
- Performance monitoring, fault recognition.

- Switching of voice calls to and from PSTN.

- Switching of voice calls to and from other cellular systems.

-Control of signaling functions for call establishment.

- Collection of billing data.

Channels

 Control channels
 Setting up and maintaining calls
 Establish relationship between mobile unit and nearest BS

 Traffic channels
 Carry voice and data
Cellular Systems Generations

• Introduction
• 1G , 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G, 5G
• Comparison
First Generation (1G) Cellular Systems
• Early 1980s in North America (ends 1990)
- Consists of analog cellular systems.
- Provide affordable mobile service with satisfactory QoS,
efficiently using the limited available spectrum.
• US: American Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
• JAPAN: Nippon Advanced Mobile Telephone Service (NAMTS)
• England: Total Access Communication System (TACS)
• Germany: C450
• Characteristics:
- Analog FM
- FDMA
- Channel BW: 25 kHz or 30 kHz
- 824-894 MHz frequency band
- Speed was up to 2.4kbps
- Voice calls only
Limitations of 1G

 Poor Voice Quality

 Poor Battery Life
 No data service
 Large Phone Size
 No Security
 Limited Capacity
 Poor Handoff Reliability
 Second Generation (2G) Cellular Systems

- Launched in Finland in 1991.

- Switch to Digital Technology.
- Europe: GSM: 850-1900 MHz.

• US: Interim Standard – 54

• US: Interim Standard – 95
• JAPAN: Personal Digital Cellular (PDC)
2G - Characteristics
Provides higher spectrum capacity and
 Mainly for voice with digital signals

 Data speed up to 64 Kbps

 SMS, PMS, and MMS are offered

 Higher quality signals

 Higher data rates
 Privacy - Encryption
 Easy to encrypt digital traffic
 Error detection and correction
 Channel access
 TDMA or CDMA
2G - Comparison
Parameter GSM IS-54 IS-95 PDC
Freq. Band (MHz-uplink) 870-915 824-849 824-849 940-956

Freq. Band (MHz-DL) 935-960 869-894 869-894 810-826

Duplex Spacing (MHz) 45 45 45 138

Channel BW (KHz) 200 30 1250 25

Multiple Access TDMA TDMA CDMA TDMA

Duplex Mode FDD FDD FDD FDD

No. of Channels Per 08 03 - 03

carrier

Modulation GMSK Π/4 QPSK Π/4

DQPSK BPSK DQPSK
Limitation of 2G

 2G requires strong digital signals to help mobile

phones work. If there is no network coverage in any
specific area , digital signals would become weak.

 These systems are unable to handle complex data such

as Videos.
2.5G
 2.5G is sometimes described as 2G Cellular
technology combined with GPRS.
 Phone with Internet
 Send/Receive E-mail Messages
 Web Browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera Phones
 Take time of 6-9 minutes to download a video file
and 3 minutes to download mp3 song.
3G Cellular Systems (year 2000)
- Seeks to fully merge mobility with Internet.
- Develop a global standard for worldwide access.
- IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications) is a set of
requirements for 3G by ITU.
- IMT-2000 family consists of:
 UMTS: 3G successor to GSM
 CDMA 2000: 3G successor to IS-95
 UWC-136/EDGE (Universal Wireless
Communication – 136/Enhanced data rates for GSM
evolution).
 Typically called Smart Phones and features increased
to accommodate web-based applications and audio-
video files.
3G Capabilities
 Voice quality comparable to PSTN
 144 kbps available to users in vehicles over large areas
 384 kbps available to pedestrians over small areas
 Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
 Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched services
 More efficient use of available spectrum
 Delivers more new features such as Web browsing, e-
mail, TV streaming/Mobile TV/ video conferencing etc.
 11 sec – 1.5 min. time to download a 3 min Mp3 song.
Transition to 3G
Limitations of 3G
 Expensive fees for 3G License Services
 It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
 High Bandwidth Requirement
 Expensive 3G Phones.
 4G Cellular Systems
 4G is the next major generation of mobile cellular systems,
deployed around the year 2010 with following objectives:
• 100Mbps – 1Gbps speed
• Cost reduction
• User services: mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming
services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and
cloud computing
• 4G is the IP-based mobile system that combined together
OFDM, MC-CDMA and LAS-CDMA in order to avoid the
faultless roaming from one technology to another.
• LTE (Long Term Evolution) and Wi-MAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) technologies are used
for 4th generation.
• Could coexist with 2G & 3G
• 4G is not necessarily defined by the bit rate, but by a significant
advance in system capability beyond what can be achieved with
3G
• Technologies used in 4G wireless systems:
• Smart antennas for MIMO (Multiple input multiple output)
systems.
• IPv6
• VoIP
• OFDM
• Software defined Radio (SDR) and Cognitive Radio (CR)
4G - Limitations

•Battery uses is more

•Implementation of hardware is complex
•Exclusive network is compulsory
•Expensive equipment required to implement next generation
network.
5G Technology
 It is the wireless internet network which is maintained by OFDM,
MC-CDMA, LAS-CDMA, UWB, Network-LMDS and IPv6.
 Complete wireless communication with almost no limitations.
 5G is also called as Real world wireless or WWWW (Wireless
World Wide Web).
 Multi - Media Newspapers, HD TV, Faster data transmission that
of the previous generations (in Gbps), Large Phone Memory,
Dialing Speed, clarity in Audio/Video, Support interactive
multimedia , voice, streaming video, Internet and other.
 So 5G is More Effective and More Attractive.
Challenges with 5G
 5G Wireless Communication System is not deployed yet. The big
challenge for the design and deployment of 5G are:
 Enormous bandwidth 3-300GHz.
 For high frequencies the transmission distance for signal become
very less so deployment of technology is very costly.
 To achieve data rates of 1Gbps or more.
 The big rate is controlled by using Open Control Protocol
(OTP).This OTP is supported by transport layer and session layer
in 5G networks.
 There is not any limitation in 5G with respect to user demands in
the next 200 years.
Comparison among technologies from 1G to 5G
BETWEEN 4G Vs 5G
Comparison among technologies from 1G to 5G
cont…
BETWEEN 4G Vs 5G
 Cellular Concept–
System Design Fundamentals
Introduction

 Underlying technology for mobile phones, personal

communication systems, wireless networking etc.

 Developed for mobile radio telephone

 Replace high power transmitter/receiver systems

 Use lower power, shorter range, more transmitters

Cellular Network Organization

 Multiple low power transmitters

 100w or less
 Area divided into cells
 Each with own antenna
 Each with own range of frequencies
 Served by base station
 Transmitter, receiver, control unit

 Adjacent cells on different frequencies to avoid

interference or crosstalk
The Cellular Concept
Shape of Cells (1)
-Hexagonal shape of a cell is a conceptual model.
-Hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of a
cellular system.
-Choices of coverage as per radiation:
+Circle
+Square
+Equilateral triangle
+Hexagon
Requirement:
-Large coverage area without overlapping and leaving
space,
-Service to weakest mobiles within the footprint.
 Shape of Cells (2)
 Square
 Width d, cell has four neighbours at distance d and four at
distance 2 d
 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna

 Hexagon
 Provides equidistant antennas
 Radius defined as radius of circum-circle
 Distance from centre to vertex equals length of side

 Distance between centres of cells radius d is 3 R

 Not always precise hexagons
 Topographical limitations

 Local signal propagation conditions

 Location of antennas
Cellular Geometries
Solution:
-For a given distance between the centre of a polygon
and its farthest perimeter points, the hexagon has the
largest area out of three. (Square, Triangle & Hexagon)

-With hexagon fewest number of cells can cover a

geographical region.

-Hexagonal cell can be approximated as circle

Omni-directional base station antenna.
Frequency Reuse
 Power of base transceiver controlled
 Allow communications within cell on given frequency
 Limit escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allow re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Use same frequency for multiple conversations
 10 – 50 frequencies per cell
 E.g.
 N cells all using same number of frequencies
 K total number of frequencies used in systems
 Each cell has K/N frequencies
 Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) K=395, N=7
giving 57 frequencies per cell on average
Frequency
Reuse
Patterns
Frequency Reuse & Cluster Size

Cellular system with

S Duplex channels available
K Group of channels allocated for each cell
N Number of cells
so, S = kN
N Cluster size
M No. of times cluster is repeated
so, Total No. of duplex channels
Capacity (C) = MkN = MS
Typical cluster size 4,7, or 12
As per geometry of hexagon No. of cells per cluster, N, can
have only such values which satisfies

N = i2 + ij + j2
i, j, non negative integers

i=j=1 N=03
i=1, j=2 N=07
i=2, j=2 N=12
Channel Assignment
 Handoff
- Identifying a new base station.
- Allocation of voice & control signals to channels associated
with the new base station.

- Handoff depends on signal strength.

Margin Δ = Pr handoff – Pr min usable

Large Δ MSC overloading

Smaller Δ Call loss may also happen when excessive
delay by the MSC in assigning handoff (computational loading
or channel unavailability)
Handoff
Handoff Strategies used to determine instant
of Handoff
 Handoff decision (momentary fading)
 Relative signal strength
 Relative signal strength with threshold
 Relative signal strength with hysteresis
 Relative signal strength with hysteresis and threshold
Handoff between two cells
Styles of Handoff

 Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)

 in first generation cellular system, each base station
constantly monitors signal strength from mobiles in its cell
 based on the measures, MSC decides if handoff necessary
 mobile plays passive role in process
 burden on MSC
Styles of Handoff
 Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
 present in second generation systems
 mobile measures received power from surrounding base
stations and report to serving base station
 handoff initiated when power received from a neighboring
cell exceeds current value by a certain level or for a certain
period of time
 fastersince measurements made by mobiles, MSC don’t
need monitor signal strength
Types of Handoff

 Hard handoff - (break before make)

 FDMA, TDMA
 mobile has radio link with only one BS at anytime
 old BS connection is terminated before new BS connection
is made.
Types of Handoff

 Soft handoff (make before break)

 CDMA systems
 mobile has simultaneous radio link with more than one BS
at any time
 new BS connection is made before old BS connection is
broken
 mobile unit remains in this state until one base station
clearly predominates
Intersystem handoff
 MSC can't find a cell within its system to which it can transfer
the call in progress

 MU moves from one cellular system to a different system

controlled by different MSC

 MU becomes a roamer in a different system

Prioritizing handoff

 Prioritize handoff over call initiation request

 Guard channel concept

 Queuing of handoff requests
Practical Handoffs: Umbrella cell
 Interference & System Capacity
Interference: A major limiting factor in the performance of
cellular radio system.

Mobile in same cell

Call in progress in neighbouring cell
Sources Other base station operating at same frequency
Non cellular systems that leaks energy in cellular
Types

Co-channel Adjacent Channel

Physical Distance Proper Filtering

Should be large enough &
To isolate channel assignment
Co-channel Interference
- Cells using the same set of frequencies are called co-
channel cells

- Co-channel cells are separated with distance to reduce

interference

- Cell radius = R; Distance b/w centres of co-channel cells = D

- Increasing D/R=Q (Co channel reuse ratio)

Reduction in interference (Isolation in RF energy)

- For hexagon geometry,

Q=D/R=√3N
Smaller N (i.e. small value of Q) provides greater capacity,
whereas larger value of Q improves transmission quality (due to
smaller level of co-channel interference). TRADEOFF is required.
- Signal to interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a mobile receiver

, i0=Co channel interfering cells

S – desired signal power from desired BS

Ii – interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell BS

- From the power law of distance,

Avg. received power Pr at distance d from Tx antenna
Pr = P0 (d/d0)-n
or Pr (dBm) = P0 (dBm)-10n log (d/do)

Where P0 = Power received at a close-in reference point in the far

field region of the antenna at a small distance do from the
transmitting antenna.

n = Path loss exponent

-For equal power transmission with same value of n

, i0=Co channel interfering cells

- For first layer:

+ All interfering base stations are equidistant = D
so, S/I = (D/R)n / i0 = (√3N)n /i0

- For N = 7, Q = 4.6 S/I ≈ 17.8dB, for n = 4

- For proper system design N should be increased

e.g. N = 9 i = 0 j = 3

- Co channel interference determines link performance

Dictates frequency reuse plan
(Over all system capacity.)
Cell geometry layout for N = 7
 Trunking and Grade of Service
 More number of users in limited radio spectrum Trunking

 Exploits the statistical behaviour of users so that a fixed no. of

channels can accommodate a large no. of random users

 Allows a large no. of users to share the relatively small no. of

channels in a cell by providing access to each user, on demand,
from a pool of available channels

 In a trunked mobile radio system, when a request is made by user

and all the channels are already in use, the user is Blocked, or
denied access to the system
Alternatively, a Queue may be used to hold the requesting users
until a channel becomes available

 Erlang given the “Trunking theory,” – used to determine the no.

of channels required to be allocated in a given area
 Definitions
 Traffic intensity (A): measure of channel time utilization –
Erlangs
1 Erlang – amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel that is
completely occupied
e.g. A channel occupied for 30 miniutes during an hour carries 0.5
Erlang of traffic

 Grade of service: measure of ability of a user to access a

trunked system in busiest hr. or
measure of congestion specified as the
probability of call being blocked (Erlang B) or
probability of call being delayed (Erlang C)
 Designer estimates the max. required capacity and allocates the
proper no. of channels in order to meet the GOS
 GOS of 2% blocking implies that 2 out of 100 calls will be
blocked due to channel occupancy during busiest hr. (AMPS)
Definitions

 Set up time: time required for allocating a channel to the user

 Blocked call: lost call, due to congestion

 Holding time (H): avg. duration of a call (s)

 Load (A): traffic intensity across the entire system (Erlangs)

 Request rate: call arrival rate per unit time – λ/s

 Traffic intensity

 Each user generates a traffic intensity

Au = λ.H Erlangs
λ – avg no. of call requests per unit time for each user
H – avg. duration of a call

 Total offered traffic in a system containing U users

A = U. Au Erlangs

 For a C channel trunked system, the traffic intensity per channel

Ac = U. Au /C Erlangs
Trunked systems: Assumptions
 Call arrival is Poisson distributed

 Memoryless arrival of requests

 Infinite number of users

 Probability that a user occupying a channel is exponentially

distributed (longer calls are less likely to occur)

 Finite number of channels available in trunking pool

 Trunked systems: Blocked calls cleared
 Offers no queuing for call request
 No setup time and user is given immediate access if channel is
available
 If channel is not available, user is blocked w/o access and is free
to try again later
 Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is blocked
and is a measure of GOS for a trunked system which provides no
queuing for blocked calls
AC
Pr[blocking ]  C C! k  GOS
A
k 0 k!

C – no. of channels offered by trunked system

A – total offered load
Trunked systems: Blocked calls delayed
 Instead of blocking, call request may be delayed until a channel
becomes available

 GOS – probability that a call is blocked after waiting a specific

length of time (lets t) in a queue

 GOS = Pr[delay>t] = Pr[delay>0] . Pr[delay>t | delay>0]

where, Pr[delay>0] is given by Erlang C formula:
AC
Pr[delay>0] =
 A  C 1 A
k
A  C!1  
C

 C  k  0 k!

and, Pr[delay>t | delay>0] = exp[-(C-A)t / H]

 Improving Coverage & Capacity
 3 techniques are used: Cell splitting, Sectoring, and Coverage zone
concept
 Cell splitting
- allows orderly growth of cellular system
- increases the number of BSs to increase capacity
- do not suffer the trunking inefficiencies
- reduces the computational load at MSC
 Sectoring
- uses directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency reuse
- rely on BS antenna placements to improve capacity by reducing co-channel
interference
- suffer the trunking inefficiencies

 Microcell zone
- distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach
places
- rely on BS antenna placements
- do not suffer the trunking efficiencies
 Cell splitting
 Non-uniform distribution of topography and traffic

 Congested cells are subdivided into smaller cells

 Each cell has its own BS and a corresponding reduction in

antenna height and Tx power (increases the capacity, since it
increases the number of times channels can be reused.)

 Maintains Q (not upsetting channel allocation scheme)

 If cell radius is cut in half, approx. 4 times as many cells are

required to cover the same area (area ≈ ᴨR2)
 The cell which is saturated with traffic is splitted into smaller cells
without changing the geometry of cluster.

 Example: BSs are placed at corners, BS-A is assumed to be

saturated with traffic, so A is splitted.

 The original BS-A will be

surrounded by 6 new
microcells without
changing the geometry
of cluster.

 Smaller cells in high use areas

 Original cells 6.5 – 13 km
 1.5 km limit in general
 Tx power must be reduced to ensure that freq. reuse plan
behaves exactly same.

 If the radius of new cell is half that of original cell:

Pr[at old cell boundary] ≈ Pt1R-n
Pr[at new cell boundary] ≈ Pt2(R/2)-n

Pt2 = Pt1/16, for n = 4

 Tx power of smaller cell BS must be 16 times smaller than that

of larger cell BS.
 Sectoring
 Method of reducing co channel interference using directional
antennas (instead of N )
 Cell partitioned into sectors
 3 - 6 sectors per cell, i.e. 3-6 directional antennas/cell
 No. of channels in each sector = no. of channels in a cell / no. of
sectors in a cell
 Sectoring involves:
1. First improving S/I using directional antennas
2. Then improving capacity by reducing N, i.e. more frequency reuse
Co channel interference with 1200 sectorized cells:
- Using approximate geometry,
S R 4 1
 
I 2( D  R) 4 2(Q  1) 4

≈ 27 dB
- with omnidirectional antenna
S/I = 18 dB (N = 7)
- an increase of 9 dB can
achieve N = 4
- 600 sectoring achieves
N=3
 Micro cell zone concept
 Microcells
 Move antennas from tops of hills and large buildings to tops of
small buildings and sides of large buildings
 Even lamp posts

 Form microcells
 Reduced power
 Good for city streets,
along roads, & large
buildings
Mobile Radio Propagation –
Large-Scale Path Loss
Line-of-sight (Space wave
Propagation)
Free space path loss model
 LOS System Design
Aim: “To deliver sufficient signal power to the receiver at the
far end of the link to achieve some performance objective.”

General steps
1. Site Selection
- Need to select tower location in LOS of each other.
- Select location for radio equipments.

2. Selection of Operational Frequency

- Regulatory body of region

3. Determine Radio Tower Height

Development of path profile
- Solid objects Buildings, Mountains
- Flat conductive surfaces Lake, Sides of metal buildings
- Atmospheric Conditions Humidity, Temperature, Rainfall.
4. Path Calculation
- Propagation reliability
- Received signal level
- Fade margin
- Transmitter power

5. Path survey
- Verification of first four steps
- Additional planning information

6. System specifications outline

- Frequency plan
- Operational parameters
7. Equipment configuration
- As per technical specifications
- According to most economical costs.
- Reflections from surface of earth and from buildings or walls
produce reflected wave which may cause constructive or
destructive interference at the receiver.
Basics
 Transmission media – wired and wireless
 Wireless – antenna
 Antenna – directional and omnidirectional
 Antenna Gain – measure of directivity of antenna
 Effective area - related to physical size and shape of antenna
G = 4ΠAe/λ2
 Frequency range of interest: About 30 MHz – 1 GHz
 Broadcast radio – covers VHF and part of UHF band
 Suitable for omnidirectional applications – radio range
 Unlike microwave (1 – 300 GHz), does not require directional
antennas
 Ionosphere is transparent to radio waves above 30 MHz
 Transmission is limited to LoS (can travel only through space)
 Distant Txs will not interfere with each other due to
reflections from atmosphere – Space wave or LoS propagation
Basics
 Direct transmission b/w Tx and Rx is possible
 Tx and Rx antennas must be within an effective LoS
 Direct wave path, LoS path, Non-LoS (out of site) path, and
Obstructive path
 The major use of broadcast radio range is two way
communication b/w a fixed BS and several MUs in the
vicinity of 900MHz
 Range of operation is limited to within the effective LoS
horizon of BS
 Advantage of low range:
1. Low power Tx
2. Frequency reuse (not possible with HF (3-30 MHz) due to
ionospheric reflections)
Free space propagation model: Free space
path loss (LoS path loss)
 To predict received s/g power when Tx and RX have a clear
unobstructed LoS path b/w them
 s/g attenuates over distance because it is being spread over
larger and larger area
 Farther the Rx ant from the Tx ant, lesser will be the received
s/g power – known as ‘Free space loss’ – Pt / Pr
 In mobile comms, omnidirectional antenna are most
frequently used
 An ‘Isotropic radiator’ is an ideal lossless antenna that radiates
power uniformly in all directions
Free-Space (LOS) Propagation:
- Free space path loss (Lp) between two isotropic antennas is:
Lp = PT/PR = (4ΠR/λ)2
- When nonisotropic antennas are used:
Lp = PTGTGR / PR Friis equation
PR (dB) = PT (dB) + GR (dB) + GT (dB) – Lp (dB)
The Frris equation is the fundamental link budget equation.

- Vertical polarization is generally used for terrestrial mobile

communications.
- At frequencies in the VHF band, vertical polarization is better than
horizontal polarization because it produces a higher field strength
near the ground.
 Free Space Loss
It is loss in the microwave transmission link in a region free of all
objects and might absorb or reflect radio energy.
Let Pt = Transmitted power
Gt = Gain of the antenna. Coupled to T x.
d = Distance of Tx
S = power flux density (power/unit surface area of a
sphere of radius d )
S = Gt Pt / 4πd2
Pr= Received power at a distance d from Tx
Ar= Effective aperture of the antenna. It is a measure of
power captured.
Gr = Antenna gain at receiver.
Ar = λ2 Gr / 2π and Pr = SAr
So, Pr = [λ/4πd]2 Gt Gr Pt .
Pr/Pt = G t G r [λ/4πd]2
In terms of frequency
Pr/Pt = Gt Gr [.57 * 10-3/(d.f)2]
(Pr/Pt)dB = (G t)dB + (G r)dB – (32.5 + 20logd + 20log f)
So, Transmission path loss
Lp = (32.5 + 20log10d + 20log1of) dB
+ When distance is doubled, free space attenuation is 6 dB
greater.
+ If distance d is halved, loss is 6 dB less
+ If f is doubled increase in 6 dB
+ If f is halved decrease of 6 dB
In general, ideal case, Pr = Pt – Lp + Gt + Gr
In real case, Pr = Pt – Lp + Gt + Gr – Lt – L r –L0
Lt - Transmission line loss
Lr - Tx line b/w Rx antenna & Rx I/p.
L0 - Other losses like atmospheric,
absorption, etc.
 Free Space Path Loss Model
Free space path loss model (LoS)
Lp (d) = +32.44 + 20log f (MHz) + 20log d (km)

Average path loss for Tx & Rx distance of d is given as:

LTOT = Lp (d0) (d/d0)n

n = path loss exponent

do = Free space close in reference distance (corner distance)
Lp(d0) = Free space loss at corner distance
Lp(d0) = 32.44 + 20log f + 20log d0
d0 = 1 km in large cellular systems
d0 > (2D2/λ) D is largest antenna dimension
 Impairments of LoS Propagation
 Attenuation – F[distance and makeup of atmosphere]

 Noise
a) Thermal noise (AWGN)
b) Intermodulation noise
c) Crosstalk
d) Impulse noise

 Multipath propagation
 Multipath Propagation
 Reflection
 Surface large relative to wavelength of signal
 May have phase shift from original
 May cancel out original or increase it
 Diffraction
 Edge of impenetrable body that is large relative to wavelength
 May receive signal even if no line of sight (LOS) to transmitter
 Scattering
 Obstacle size on order of wavelength
 Lamp posts etc.

 If LOS, diffracted and scattered signals not significant

 Reflected signals may be
 If no LOS, diffraction and scattering are primary means of
reception
Reflection, Diffraction, Scattering
Effects of Multipath Propagation
 Signals may cancel out due to phase differences

 Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

 Sending narrow pulse at given frequency between fixed
antenna and mobile unit
 Channel may deliver multiple copies at different times
 Delayed pulses act as noise making recovery of bit
information difficult
 Timing changes as mobile unit moves
 harder to design signal processing to filter out multipath
effects

 Fading
Two Pulses in Time-Variant Multipath
 Fading
 Reduction in received power.
causes: Refraction, diffraction or reflection or combination, which is
referred as multipath fading

 Time variation of received signal power caused by changes in

transmission path(s)

 Movement of (mobile unit) antenna – the relative location of

various obstacles changes with time – complex transmission
effects
Fading of space waves (LoS propagation)

Fading Margin

System gain

Maximum coverage distance (communication

range)
Large scale propagation models
 Predict the mean s/g strength for an arbitrary Tx-Rx separation
distance – useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a Tx
 Conversely, small scale or fading models characterize the rapid
fluctuations of the received s/g strength over very short travel
distances
 Radio propagation models are derived using a combination of
analytical and empirical methods
 Implicitly takes into account all propagation factors (known and
unknown) through actual field measurements
 Allows to predict the SNR for a mobile comm. System
1. Log-distance path loss model
2. Outdoor path loss model
3. Indoor path loss model
 Mobile radio s/g representation
 Signal fades rapidly (small scale fading) as the receiver moves, but
the local average signal changes much more gradually with
distance
Log-distance path loss model with shadowing
 As mobile moves in uneven terrain, it often travels into a
propagation shadow behind a building or a hill or other obstacle
much larger than the wavelength of the transmitted s/g, and the
associated received s/g level is attenuated significantly. This
phenomenon is called shadowing
 Shadowing is the loss of signal strength which is typically
contributed to a diffracted wave emanating from an obstacle
between transmitter and receiver. It is also referred as slow
fading
 Log-normal distribution is a popular model for characterizing
the shadowing process
 Thus, long-term fading is a combination of log-distance path
loss and log-normal shadowing.
Log-distance path loss model with shadowing
 Overall path loss with shadowing (long-term fading)

 PL(d)db = PL(d0) + 10nlog(d0/d) + Xdb

X – zero mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB)
with standard deviation σ. The pdf is given by

B
1 x
(d
B 5
0/
2 2
d)
B 


f
()
xd e
2d
B

 µ50 = Median value of the path loss (in dB) at a specified

distance from the Tx
Outdoor path loss model
 Takes into account the irregular terrain
 Analytical & Empirical models (fitting curves and/or analytic
expressions) derived based on a systematic interpretation of
measured data
+ Frequency of operation
+ Area coverage (Distance)
+ Environmental conditions (Dynamic)

1. Longley-Rice model
2. Durkin’s model
3. Okumura and Hata model
4. Walfisch and Bertoni model
5. Wideband PCS microcell model
 Okumura model
 Developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation in Urban
area over a quasi-smooth terrain
 Predicts avg. Path loss b/w BS and MU
 Applicable for:
1. Freq. Range - 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (up to 3000 MHz)
2. Distance – 1 to 100 km
3. BS Ant height – 30 to 1000 m, MU – 1 to 10 m
 Completely based on measured data and does not provide any
analytical explanation
 Simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction in
cluttered environments
 Drawback is its slow response to rapid changes in terrain, i.e. Fairly
good in urban and suburban areas but not as good for rural areas
 Common standard deviation b/w predicted and measured path loss
values are around 10 to 14 dB
Okumura model
 PL(d)db = PL(d0) + A(fc,d) – G(hb) - G(hm) - GArea
PL(d)db = median value of propagation path loss
PL(d0) = Free space path loss
A(fc,d) = Median attenuation relative to free space
G(hb) & G(hm) - Antenna height gain factor
GArea = Gain due to type of environment (correction factor)

 Antenna height gains are function of height

G(hb) = 20 log (hb/200) 1000 m > hb > 30 m
G(hm) = 10 log (hm/3) hm ≤ 3 m
G(hm) = 20 log (hm/3) 10 m > hm > 3 m
Plot of A(fc,d)
Plot of Garea (correction factor due to different type of terrain)
Hata model
 Given an empirical formulation of the geographical path loss
information provided by Okumara
 Presented the urban area propagation loss as a standard formula
and supplied correction equations for applications to other
situations

 PL(d)db = A + Blog10(d) for urban area

= A + Blog10(d) - C for suburban area
= A + Blog10(d) – D for open (rural) area
d(km) – Tx-Rx separation distance
Hata model
A = A(fc,hb,hm) = 69.55 + 26.16 log10(fc) – 13.82log10(hb) – a(hm)
B = B(hb) = 44.9 – 6.55log10(hb)
C = C(fc) = 2[log10(fc/28)]2 + 5.4
D = D(fc) = 4.78[log10(fc)]2 – 19.33log10(fc) + 40.94

fc = carrier frequency (150 – 1500MHz)

hb = 30 – 200m, extended range 1.5 – 400m
hm = 1 – 10m
d = 1 – 20km, extended range 2m – 80km
a(hm) = correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which
is function of size of coverage area
Hata model
a(hm) = [1.1 log10(fc) – 0.7]hm – [1.56 log10(fc) – 0.8] dB,
for small to medium sized city
= 8.28[log10(1.54hm)]2 – 1.1, for fc ≤ 300 MHz
= 3.2[log10(11.75hm)]2 – 4.97, for fc ≥ 300 MHz

 Compares very closely with the Okukura model as long as d

exceeds 1Km
 Well suited for large cell mobile systems
 Indoor propagation model
 Distance covered is much smaller
 Variability of environment is much greater for much smaller Tx-Rx
seperation
 Propagation within buildings is influenced by:
1. Layout of building
2. Construction material
3. Building type
 Dominated by same factors (reflection, diffraction and scattering),
however conditions are much more variable
 Indoor channels are classified as LoS or obstructed, with varying
degree of clutter. Some of the models are:
1. Partition loss model
2. Log-distance path loss model
3. Ericson multiple breakpoint model
4. Attenuation factor model
 Small Scale Fading and Multipath
 Multipath creates small scale fading effects:
a) Envelop fading: rapid changes in signal strength over a small
travel distance due to random phases and amplitudes of different
multipath components.

b) Doppler spread: the relative motion between BS and MS results

in random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multipath signals. +ve or –ve

c) Time delay spread: time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath

propagation delays.
 Doppler spread
 Doppler shift
 Baseband spectral bandwidth(BD) (Doppler spread or time selective
fading)
 Coherence time (TC): time domain dual of doppler spread
 used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency
dispersiveness of the channel in time domain
TC ≈ 1/fm
 TC suggests a time duration during which a signal may fluctuate
widely (Rayleigh fading)
 If symbol period (1/BW) > TC or symbol rate < 1/ TC , the channel
will change during transmission of b/b s/g, thus causing distortion
at Rx
 Implies that if two signals arriving with a time separation > TC , are
affected differently by the channel
 If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time
correlation function is above 0.5 (50%), then
TC ≈ 9/16ᴨfm

 Thumb rule is to define coherence time as the geometric mean of

above two: TC ≈ 0.423/fm
 Time delay spread
 In a realistic multipath environment, a large number of delayed
components are added. These components form a power delay
profile. The extent of power delay profile is called ‘Delay Spread.’

 The reflected delayed signals could be received at a comparable

power level to the attenuated direct path signal.
 Value Path ‘d0’ Path ‘d1+d2’ Path ‘d3+d4’
Distance 1km 36km 101km
Pt = 10w 40dBm 40dBm 40dBm
Prop path 65dB 152dB 168dB
loss
Obstruction Path loss 96dB 7dB 10dB
Caused s/g due to
building….
attenuation
Total path 161dB 159dB 178dB
loss LT
Received -121dBm -119dBm -138dBm
power Pr
Propagation τ0= d0/c τ1+ τ2= τ3+ τ4=
delay = 3.3µs (d1+d2)/c (d3+d4)/c
= 120µs = 336.7µs

Delay 0µs 116.7µs 333.4µs

spread ‘first arrival
τ=(τk+ τl) - τ0 delay’
 Delay spread (τ) and propagation loss values of a 3KHz narrowband
150MHz radio frequency PLMR system
 Delay terminology and definitions
 Power delay profile: indicates the dispersion or distribution of
transmitted power over various paths of multipath structure.
Represented as a density function:
S ( )
P( ) 
 S ( )d
S(τ) – absolute power level of P(τ) (measured power delay profile)
So, P(τ) is spatial average of consecutive impulse response
measurements collected and averaged over a local area

 First arrival delay(τA): delay of first arriving path, which is

measured at receiver. This delay serves as a reference, and all delay
measurements are taken in relation to it. Any delay measured to the
right of this reference delay is called an excess delay.
 Mean excess delay(τe): the average delay measured wrt first arrival
delay, expressed as:
e   (   ) P( )d
A

first moment of power delay profile

 RMS delay(τd): measure of delay spread. It is the standard
deviation about the mean access delay:
2
 
d
 (     )
e A P( )d

square root of second central moment of power delay profile

 Maximum excess delay(τm): measured wrt a certain power level.
e.g. can be specified as the excess delay for which P(τ) falls to -30
dB of its peak value.
 Delay-spread bound (Feher’s upper bound)

 Leads to a simple estimation of ‘worst-case’ delay spread, based on

basic system parameters: Pt, Prmin, and fc.
 This bound applies to all wireless communications.

τmax = dmax/C

τmax = (1/4ᴨfc)(Pt/Prmin)1/2 seconds

 Coherence BW (BC)
 Analogous to delay spread parameters in time domain
 The rms delay spread and coherence BW are inversely proportional
to one another:
BC ≈ 1/τd
 Statistical measure of range of frequencies over which the channel
is considered to be flat (which passes all spectral components with
approx. equal gain and linear phase)
 Two sinusoids with frequency separation > BC are affected quite
differently by the channel
 If BC is defined as the BW over which the frequency correlation
function is above 0.9, then BC ≈ 1/50τd
 If the definition is relaxed to correlation function above 0.5, then
BC ≈ 1/5τd
- Thus for data transmission, two parameters of interest:

1. Coherence time: is the maximum duration for which the channel

can be assumed to be approximately constant. If a transmitted
data symbol has a duration that is less than the coherence time, it
should suffer little distortion from the effects of frequency
dispersion.
TC ≈ 1/fm

2. Coherence bandwidth: is the maximum transmission bandwidth

over which there is little variation. A signal contained within the
coherence bandwidth should suffer little distortion from the
effects of time distortion.
BC ≈ 1/τd
 Fading effects due to time delay spread
1. FLAT FADING
 If the BW of Tx s/g (BS) << coherence BW of the channel (BC) OR
 Symbol period (TS) >> time delay spread of channel (τd)
 h(t, τ) can be approximated as having no excess delay (τ 0)
 Spectral characteristics of the Tx s/g are preserved at Rx and the
received s/g will undergo flat fading
 The amplitude variation in flat-fading channel follows Rayleigh
distribution
 2. FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING
 If BS > BC, or TS < τd, the received signal will undergo frequency
selective fading
 This fading is due to the time dispersion of the Tx symbols within
the channel, ISI
 The channel becomes frequency selective, where the gain is
different for different frequency components (BS > BC)
 Fading effects due to doppler spread
1. FAST FADING
 If TS > TC, and BS < BD, the channel impulse response changes
rapidly within the symbol duration

 Causes frequency dispersion (also called time-selective fading) due

to doppler spreading, which leads to s/g distortion

2. SLOW FADING
 If TS << TC, and BS >> BD, the channel impulse response changes at
a rate much slower than the Tx symbol duration
 Small Scale Fading
(Based on Multipath time delay spread)

- Flat fading - Frequency selective fading

- S/g BW (BS) << Channel BW (BC) - BS > BC
- symbol period (TS) >> Delay spread (τd) - τd > TS

(Based on Doppler spread)

- Fast fading - Slow fading

- High Doppler spread - Low Doppler spread
- BS < BD - BS >> BD
- TC < TS - TC >> TS
Rayleigh Fading (non-LOS)

- Reflections from surrounding objects are dominant

- The envelope of the received signal typically has a
Rayleigh distribution with probability density function.
 r2 
 
22
 
re
p(r) 
2
r : received signal amplitude
σ : variance of the received signal
Rician Fading (strong LOS + ground reflection)

- Random components arriving at different angles are

superimposed on a stationary signal.

- Received signal envelope follows a Rician probability density

function

r : received signal amplitude

A : peak to peak amplitude of the dominant signal about
the carrier in dB
I0 (.): modified bessel function of first kind and zero order
 Error Compensation Mechanisms
 Forward error correction

 Equalization
 Applied to transmissions that carry analog or digital
information
 Used to combat Intersymbol interference
 Gathering the dispersed symbol energy back together into its
original time interval
 Techniques include so-called lumped analog circuits and
sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
 Error Compensation Mechanisms
 Diversity
 Based on fact that individual paths experience independent
fading effects
 Provides multiple logical paths between transmitter and
receiver
 Send same signal over each path
 Reduces error rate
 Generally classified as:
 Space diversity

 Frequency

 Time

 Angle

 Polarization
Diversity Techniques
General benefits of diversity:
- Reduces fade margin requirements
- Increased equipment reliability
- Reduces transmitter power
- Greater tolerance to interference
The signal in each diversity branch must ideally experience
completely independent fading.

Diversity technique

Explicit Implicit
 Explicit technique
- More than one diversity branch used by Tx.
- Tx transmits multiple replicas of the signal on different
diversity branches.
- Rx receives on different diversity branches.

 Implicit technique
- Tx transmits the signal once.
- The different replicas of signal are produced by propagation
medium.
- Rx receives on different branches.
Space diversity (implicit)
 Single Tx antenna and a no. of Rx antennas.
 Rx system consists of two receivers tuned to the same frequency.
 Each Rx is connected to one antenna.
 Spacing can be in horizontal as well as the vertical plane.
 Fading effect will be different because distance is varying, called
space diversity.
 At Rx, either selection method of diversity reception or
switching method (requires only one Rx)
Angle diversity (implicit)
 Antennas are kept at different angles (requires directional
antennas)
 Each antenna responds independently to wave propagating at a
specific angle
 High probability that at least one angle will receive favourable s/g
 Frequency diversity (explicit)
 Two pairs of Tx & Rx are needed, each tuned to different
frequency.
 Difference between frequencies should be at least 2% to 5%.
 Same signal sent over two frequencies.
 Number of Tx and Rx antennas is reduced to one.
 Polarization (explicit)
 The horizontal and vertical polarization elemnets Ex and Ey,
transmitted by two polarized antennas at BS and received by two
polarized antennas at MU.

Time (explicit)
 Repeatedly transmits information at time spacing
Modulation Techniques
For
Mobile Radio
 Factors Influencing the Choice of Digital Modulation

- Desirable features of Modulation schemes:

+ Low BER at low received SNR
+ Good performance under multipath & fading environment.
+ Min. BW requirement
+ Easy & cost effective.

- Performance Parameters:
+ BW efficiency
+ Power efficiency: Ability of modulation technique to preserve
the fidelity of digital message at low power levels.
ηp = Eb/N0 = S/g energy per bit / PSD

ηB = R/B bps/Hz = Data rate / BW occupied

ηBmax = C/B = log 2 (1 + S/N)

 Digital Modulation

Linear Non-linear
+ Amplitude of transmitted signal varies linearly with modulating
signal.
+ BW efficient.
For a linear modulation transmitted signal
s (t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2Πfc t)]
= A [m R (t) Cos (2 Πfc t) – m I (t) Sin (2 Πfc t)]
m (t) = m R (t) + j m I (t)
Linear modulation technique include
+ QPSK
+ OQPSK
+ Π/4 QPSK
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
- Two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of
carrier frequency.
s (t) = A Cos (2 Π f c t) binary 1
= 0 binary 0
- Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

- BFSK less susceptible to error than ASK.
- More BW efficient but also more susceptible to error is
multiple FSK (MFSK) .
More than two frequencies are used.
MFSK S i (t) = A Cos (2 Π f i t), 1 ≤ i ≤ M
f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M) f d
f c = Carrier frequency
f d = different frequency
M = No. of different S/g levels = 2 L
L = No. of bits / Signal element
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
- Phase of carrier S/g is shifted to represent data.
- Different forms of PSK:
+ Binary PSK (BPSK)
+ Four level PSK (QPSK)
+ Multilevel PSK
+ Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
BPSK

Phase of a constant amplitude carrier is switched between two

values according to the two possible S/gs corresponding
to binary 1 or 0.
- Sinusoidal carrier with amplitude Ac energy per bit
E b = (1/2) A2cTb
.
 Transmitted BPSK signal
SBPSK (t) = √2Eb/Tb Cos (2 Π f c t + θc), 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb (Binary 1)

or SBPSK (t) = √2Eb/Tb Cos (2 Π f c + Π + θc)

= - √2Eb/Tb Cos (2 Π f c + θc), 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb (Binary 0)

- Equivalent to DSB-SC
- BPSK can be generated using balanced modulator.
- Coherent / Synchronous demodulation.

- P e BPSK = Q [√2Eb/N0 ]
Q – function is statistical parameter indicating channel
characteristics
 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

- Non coherent form of PSK

+ Avoids the need of coherent detector.
Generation:
I/P binary sequence – mk
generate diff. sequence – dk-1
Finally dk = mk dk-1
DPSK modulation
DPSK receiver
 QPSK
- Two bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol.
- Phase of carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values,
as 0, Π/2, Π & 3Π/2.
QPSK modulation
QPSK receiver
 Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK)
Modulation
 In DQPSK modulation, phase fluctuations are restricted to ± Π/4
and ± 3Π/4 .

 This allows non coherent detection because of differential phase

state.

 The spectral efficiency of DQPSK is about 20 percent better than

that of GMSK.

 The Π /4-DQPSK modulation is essentially Π /4-shifted QPSK with

differential encoding of symbol phases.
 DQPSK Modulator

 The In-phase and Quadrature bit streams are separated and

modulated by orthogonal carriers.
 The DQPSK signal may be expressed as:


s
(
ot
)2
S
oc
o
s(
t )p
(
no
tn
T
s


n
)


p0(t) denote the unit rectangular pulse.

 DQPSK Demodulator

 Received signal is split into two channels, In phase and

Quadrature phase. In each channel the signal is demodulated to
extract the In phase and Quadrature phase components.

 Two local oscillators of same frequency and 90o phase shift are
used.
 The received signal may be expressed:

x
(
t
) 2
S 
cos
(t ).
np(
t



n

nT
s). 

 The probability of error of DQPSK signal is approximated as:

 


1 E /N 

P
e1 b o

2
 ( 1 
o 
2
 E
b/N) 2(
E /N)

 
b O
2
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
- In QPSK signalling, the bit transitions of even and odd bit
streams occur at the same time instant.

‘Amplification of zero crossing brings back the filtered side

lobes.’

- In OQPSK, the even and odd bit streams are offset in their
relative alignment by one bit period (half symbol period).
 OQPSK
 OQPSK signals are pulse shaped.
 Pi/4 QPSK
- Compromise between OQPSK & QPSK in terms of allowed
maximum phase transition.
- Demodulation either coherent or non coherent.
- Max. phase change is limited to ± 135o.
QPSK – 180o
OQPSK - 90o
- Preserves the constant envelope property.
- More susceptible to envelope variations.
- In multipath spread and fading, gives better performance than
OQPSK.
- Signalling points of modulated S/g are selected from two QPSK
constellation which are shifted by Π/4 with respect to each other.
Pi/4 QPSK signaling
Pi/4 QPSK phase shifts
Pi/4 QPSK transmitter
Differential detection of pi/4 QPSK
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

- Special type of continuous phase frequency shift keying.

Peak frequency deviation = 1/4 of the bit rate.
+ CPFSK with a modulation index of 0.5.
Min. frequency spacing that allows two FSK signals to be
coherently orthogonal.

- MSK is also referred as fast FSK.

- Features:
+ Constant envelope
+ Spectral efficiency
+ Good BER performance
+ Self synchronizing capacity.
MSK modulation
MSK reception
 GMSK Modulation
 Robust to the fading effects.

 Used in Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication

 GMSK is derivative of MSK where the bandwidth required is

further reduced by passing the modulated waveform through
Gaussian filter.

 The Gaussian filter minimizes the instantaneous frequency

variations over time.

 The performance depends on the Bandwidth Time (BT) product,

where, B is the 3dB (or half-power) bandwidth, and T is the symbol
period.
 GMSK Modulator

 In GMSK modulation a bit stream is mapped to a non-return-to-

zero (NRZ) sequence and then passed through a low-pass filter
with a Gaussian impulse response.

 The amount of ISI introduced depends on the bandwidth-time

product, BT, of the Gaussian transmit filter.

 Intersymbol Interference (ISI) puts restriction on bandwidth to

maintain acceptable BER performance.
 The output of the GMSK modulator is given by:

s
(
t
)A 
cos(
2f
t




Ca
p
(
kT

)]
d)
 c
t 

k
2
T  


k

Where αk is the differentially encoded binary information symbol

that takes value +1 or -1.
p(t) is the rectangular pulse response of the Gaussian Filter.

 The PSD of the output of Gaussian filter is truncated to an interval

of length kT seconds because the output of the Gaussian filter is of
infinite duration.
 GMSK Detector
 The bit error rate can be given by:

1 (
E
) 
2 
BERerfc
2


a
t

where σ2 is the variance of the noise power,
λ is the signal component & η is the inter symbol interference.
Spread Spectrum Technique
 Spread Spectrum
 A Tx technique in which a PN code (independent of information
data), is employed as a modulation waveform to spread the signal
energy over a BW much greater than the information signal BW.

 At the receiver the signal is despread using a synchronized replica

of the pseudo-random code.

 System processing gain Gp = BSS/B

- Advantages:
+ secure communications
+ multiple access capability
+ increased capacity and spectral efficiency
+ difficult to jam
 Pseudo Random Noise:
 PN code sequence acts as a noise like (but deterministic) carrier
used for BW spreading of signal energy.

 Not a random code, but looks like random for the users who does
not know the code.

 Deterministic, periodical signal known to both Tx & Rx.

 Bit rate of spreading sequence is higher than input data.

 LFSR implementation is used.

1. Max. length or m sequence
2. Gold sequence
3. Kassami sequence
4. Walsh codes
5. OVSF codes
 Basic Spread Spectrum

Frequency Hopping Direct Sequence

(FHSS) (DSSS)

Frequency Hopping:
 Signal broadcast over a random series of frequencies, hopping
from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals.
 A Rx. hoping between frequencies in synchronization with the Tx,
picks up the message.
 Frequency Hopping
 A no. of channels are allocated to frequency hopped signal (if PN
code size is k bits then no. of channels = 2k)
 The Tx operates in one channel at a time for a fixed interval
(300ms- IEEE) and during this interval some bits are transmitted
 The sequence of channel used is dictated by PN code
Binary Modulator Sd(t) p(t) BPF SS S/g
Data FSK or BPSK s(t)
C(t)
Frequency
Synthesizer

Pseudo noise Channel

Bit source Table

Transmitter
s(t) p(t) binary
BPF Demodulator
c(t) data

Frequency
Synthesizer

Channel Pseudo noise

Table Bit source

Receiver
- Using FSK as data modulation scheme.

s(t) = A Cos (2 Π f1 t), binary 1

= A Cos (2 Π f2 t), binary 0

sd(t) = A Cos [2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f) t], for i T < t < (i+1)T
f0 = base frequency
bi = value of ith bit of data (+1 for 1 & -1 for 0)
∆f = frequency separation
T = bit duration, Data rate = 1 / T.

- Frequency synthesizer generates a constant frequency tone whose

frequency hops among a set of 2k frequencies.
- Hopping pattern determined by k bits from PN sequence.
- Product signal during ith hop
p(t) = sd(t) c(t)
= A Cos [2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f) t] Cos (2 Π fi t)
where fi = frequency of signal generated by synthesizer during
ith hop.
p(t) = 0.5A[Cos (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f + fi ) t)
+ Cos (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f - fi) t)]
BPF Pass the sum of frequency
For FHSS
s(t) = 0.5 A Cos [ (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f + fi ) t]
During ith bit interval
Frequency of data signal = f0 + fi + ∆f if data bit 1
f0 + fi if data bit 0
 At receiver
Received signal s(t) replica of spreading signal
p(t) = s(t) c(t) = 0.5 A Cos (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f + fi ) t) .
Cos (2 Π fi t)
p(t) = s(t) c(t) = 0.25A[Cos (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f + fi + fi) t)
+ Cos (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f) t)]
BPF is used to block the sum frequency and pass the difference freq.
0.25A[Cos (2 Π (f0 + 0.5 (bi + 1) ∆f) t)]

Types of FHSS:
If TC ≥ TS Slow FHSS
TC < TS Fast FHSS
TC = Chip duration (one hop duration)
T = symbol or bit duration
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

 Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the

transmitted signal using a PN code.

 PN code spreads the signal across a wider frequency band in direct

proportion to the no. of bits used.

 One technique with DSSS is to combine message with PN code

using XOR
 The combined bit sequence has the data rate of PN bit sequence, so
it has a wider BW than the message signal
DSSS Tx and Rx:
 DSSS performance:

 Bit duration T, R = 1/T

 Message s/g spectra = 2/T
 PN s/g spectra = 2/TC
 DSSS performance: Effectiveness against Jamming
 Let’s assume a jamming s/g at the centre freq. Of DSSS system
Sj(t) = sj cos(2πfct), sj energy of jamming s/g
 Received s/g
Sr(t) = S(t) + Sj(t) + n(t), S(t) = Tx s/g
 The despreader mul. Sr(t) by C(t), and hence the s/g component due
to jamming s/g
Yi(t) = sj C(t) cos(2πfct), {BPSK s/g, since C(t) = ±1}
 Thus, the power of sj is spread over a BW of approx. 2/Tc
 Moreover, the Rx includes a BPF matched to BPSK data, with a
BW of 2/T. Thus most of the jamming power is filtered.
 Jamming power passed by filter = sj.(2/T) / (2/Tc) = sj.(Tc/T)
 Jamming power has been reduced by a factor of Tc/T, through the
use of SS and its inverse is called Processing Gain (Gp)
 Gp = T/Tc = Rc/R ≈ Bss/B, Bss – SS s/g BW
Multi-user Communication (CDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access
- Data signal with data rate D
- Each bit is broken into k chips according to a fixed pattern,
specific to each user, called user code.
- New channel has chip data rate = kD chips per second.
Example: k = 6, No. of users: A, B, C
CA = 1, -1, -1, 1, -1, 1
CB = 1, 1, -1, -1, 1, 1
CC = 1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1
For transmitting 0 same code
For transmitting 1 complement
In general
Su(d) = d1.C1 + d2.C2 + d3.C3 + d4.C4 + d5.C5 + d6.C6
For A, transmitting bit 1
SA (1, -1, -1, 1, -1, 1)
= 1.1 + (-1) . (-1) + (-1) . (-1) + 1.1 + (-1) . (-1) + 1.1 = 6
For sending 0
SA (-1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1)
= -1.1 + 1.(-1) + 1.(-1) + (-1).1 + 1.(-1) + (-1).1 = -6
User Codes:
User A: 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
User B: 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
User C: 1 1 -1 1 1 -1
Transmission from A
Transmit data bit = 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Receiver code word 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Multiplication 1 1 1 1 1 1
=6
Similarly for data bit 0, Multiplication = -6.
 Transmission from B, receiver attempts to recover A’s
transmission:
Transmission (data = 1) 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
Receiver code word 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
Multiplication 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1
= 0.

Transmission from C, receiver attempts to recover B’s

transmission:
Transmission (data = 1) 1 1 -1 1 1 -1
Receiver code word 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
Multiplication 1 1 1 -1 1 -1
= 2.
Multiple Access Techniques
for
Wireless Communications
Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Comm.
+ FDMA
+ TDMA
+ CDMA
+ SDMA
+ Packet Radio
+ IDMA
+ Capacity of cell
- Finite radio spectrum is shared by many users to achieve high
capacity.
- Duplexing is done in wireless system.
Base station to mobile Forward channel
Mobile to base station Reverse channel
- FDD provides two simplex channels at the same time.
- TDD provides two simplex time slots on the same frequency.
Frequency Division Multiple Access:
- FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
- If channel is not in use Idle Waste of resources
- Narrow band system
- Symbol time is large as compared to the average delay
spread. Intersymbol interference is low.
- Low complexity
- Low overhead. (Synchronizing and framing bits)
- Higher cell site system cost.
Different Users:
+ Advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) –FDMA/FDD
+ Cordless telephone systems - FDMA/FDD
+ Digital European cordless systems – FDMA/TDD
- Number of channels supported in FDMA

N = (Bt – 2Bguard) / Bc

Bt Total allotted spectrum

Bguard Guard band
Bc Channel BW
Time Division Multiple Access:
- Non continuous technique
- Half time slot Forward channel
Other half Reverse channel
- TDMA frame includes:
+ Preamble address, synch.
- TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users.
- Handoff process is simpler as it is non-continuous operation.

TDMA Features:
- TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users.
No. of time slots/frame = f (modulation technique, average BW)
Efficiency of TDMA:
- It is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that contains
information.
- Frame efficiency (ηf) Percentage of bits per frame containing
transmitted data.
- No. of overhead bits per frame
bOH = Nrbr + Ntbp + Ntbg + Nrbg
Nr = No. of reference bursts / frame
br = Overhead bits / reference bits
Nt = No. of traffic bursts / frame
bp = Overhead bits / preamble in each slot
bg = Guard time interval bits
 - Total number of bits / frame bT = Tf . R
Tf = Frame duration
R = Channel bit rate
ηf = [1- (bOH / bT)]  100%

Number of Channels in TDMA System:

N = m (Btot – 2Bguard) / Bc

m = Maximum No. of TDMA users supported on

each radio channel.
 Capacity
Of
Cellular Systems
Capacity of Cellular Systems
- Maximum no. of channels that can be provided in a fixed
frequency band.
- Parameter for spectrum efficiency measurement.
+ Spectrum Eff. = f (Carrier to interference ratio, BW)
= f ( C/I, Bc )
- Source of interference:
+ Subscriber unit from surrounding cells (Reverse ch. interference).
+ Co- channel base stations (forward ch. interference).
- Forward channel Interference:
Co channel reuse ratio, Q = D / R
D – distance between two co channel cells.
R – cell radius
- Carrier to interference ratio (C/I) = f (Radio propagation
characteristics of location)
- First order interference will depend upon M closest co-channel
no
cells. C Do
 M

D
I n  k
k
k1

n0 = path loss exponent in the desired cell.

D0 = Distance from the desired base station to the mobile.
Dk = Distance from mobile to kth cell.
nk = Path loss exponent to the kth interfering BS.
If M = 6, with same path loss exponent and approximately same
distance, C /I = D0 –n / 6 D –n
- If D0 = R [Mobile is at edge Max. interference (Assumption)]
and (C/I) user > (C/I) min (Min. Threshold) for acceptable signal
quality at receiver.

Therefore, for acceptable performance

1/6 (R/D)-n ≥ (C/I) min

or
Q = [6 (C/I) min] 1/n
- Radio Capacity of a Cellular System:
Bt
m def radio channels / cell
Bc.N
m = Radio capacity metric
Bt = Total allocated spectrum for the system
Bc = Channel BW
N = No. of cells in a frequency reuse pattern.
- For a hexagonal geometry
Q = D / R = √3N
B t Bt
m 2
  
2/n
Q  
Bc  
radio channels / cell
 6  
3  C 
Bc
 min
 n I
   
 2 
3
 

- Typically, Min. required C/I = 12 dB for narrowband digital
systems
= 18 dB for narrowband analog
systems.
- Each digital wireless standard has a different (C/I)min
- To compare different systems, equivalent (C/I) (C/I)eq is used.
- For constant Bt & m
(C/I)eq = (C/I)min (Bc/B’c)2

where, B’c = Channel BW for different systems

Bc = BW of a particular system
(C/I)eq = Min. (C/I) value for different system when compared
to the (C/I)min for a particular system.
- For a digital cellular system
C/I = Eb.Rb / I = Ec.Rc / I
Eb = Energy per bit Rb = Channel bit rate
Ec = Energy per code symbol
Rc = Rate of channel code
C ERc. c
  2
I   I Bc ' 
C E'c.R'c 
 Bc


 eq
I  I

- Channel BW (Bc) & channel code rate (Rc) is having

linear relationship & I is same in two different digital
systems in mobile environment.
Ec / E’c = (B’c/Bc)3
 - Channel capacity in FDMA
Bt
m
Bt 2C
 
M 3 I 

Here Bt is divided into M channels, each with Bc.

- Capacity of Digital Cellular TDMA

+ Capacity is improved by a factor of 3 to 6 times.
+ Powerful error control & speech coding
Better link performance.
+ Mobile assisted handoff allows subscribers to monitor the
neighbouring base stations
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
- Capacity is interference limited(BW limited in FDMA & TDMA).
- Reduction in interference
linear increase in capacity of CDMA.
- Let N = number of users
- Receiver receives
+ Desired power – S
+ Undesired i.e. interference from (N -1) users
SNR = S/(N-1)S = 1/(N-1)
+ Another parameter Bit energy to noise ratio
= Signal power / base band information bit rate R & interference
power of the RF. BW. W
SNR at the base station receiver
Eb / N0 = (S/R) / (N-1).(S/W)
= (W/R) / (N-1)
= (W/R) / (N-1) + (η / S)
η Thermal noise effect

W
R 
N1  
Eb  S 
N0