23-1

Hydrologic Cycle
Surface-Atmosphere Exchange of Water Science Concepts

Water Cycle Evaporation

Condensation
Precipitation
Runoff

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-2

Hydrologic Cycle
Change in Annual Precipitation

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-3

Hydrologic Cycle
Modeled Environmental Water Scarcity Index
• Scarcity is where the amount of water removed from the system puts the
ecosystem at risk by tapping into the environmental water demand, i.e., the
amount of water needed to sustain the integrity of the ecosystem
• Areas above 0.4 are under ecosystem environmental stress
• Areas higher than 0.8 (orange and red) are highly-stressed environmentally

http://www.iucn.org/themes/wani/eatlas/html/gm16.html
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-4

Hydrologic Cycle
The Water Cycle
• All streams
flow into the
sea, yet the
sea is never
full.
To the place
the streams
come from,
there they
return again.
Ecclesiastes
1:7 (New
International
Version)

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-5

Hydrologic Cycle
The 1012 m3 per year
Water
Cycle

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-6

Hydrologic Cycle
GOES Water
Vapor Image

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-7

Hydrologic Cycle
GOES Visible
Image

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-8

Hydrologic Cycle
Mean Global Precipitable Water (cm)
• Annual Average

http://isccp.giss.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/browsed2

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-9

Hydrologic Cycle
Mean Global
Precipitable Water (cm)
(Con’t)
• Seasonal variability

S.W. Seemann, J. Li, W.P. Menzel – Univ. Wisconsin, NOAA Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-10

Hydrologic Cycle
Amazon Seasonal Variability
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
• Note seasonal rainfall variability Study/AmazonLAI/

• Amazon and Tropical seasons revolve

around wet/dry not hot/cold

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-11

Hydrologic Cycle
90

Honolulu WSO Airport Ave Max Temp (°F)

Ave Min Temp (°F)

85

Ave. Max. Temp. = 84.0°F

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncom pressed ) decomp ressor
80
are n eeded to see thi s picture .

75

• 21° 20’ N, 157° 55’ W 70

Ave. Min. Temp. = 70.2°F

• Elevation = 10 ft 65
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ave Max Temp (°F) 80 80.1 81 82.4 84.2 86.1 87.1 88 88 86.4 83.7 81

• Ave Min Temp (°F) 65.7 65.8 67.2 68.8 70.4 72.4 73.6 74.4 73.7 72.5 70.5 67.6
Averages for 4

10/1/49-3/31/05 3 Ave. Annual

2
Precipitation = 20.75 in
1

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ave Precip (in) 3.37 2.43 2.59 1.21 0.94 0.38 0.54 0.62 0.66 1.9 2.8 3.3
http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/
cliMAIN.pl?hihono Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-12

Hydrologic Cycle
Mean January Moisture
Dewpoint Temperature (°F)
1961-1990

Relative Humidity (%)

1961-1990

http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/
cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-13

Hydrologic Cycle
Mean July Moisture
Dewpoint Temperature (°F)
1961-1990

Relative Humidity (%)

1961-1990

http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/
cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-14

Hydrologic Cycle
Average Dewpoint Temperature (°F) (1960-1990)
January July

Annual

http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/
cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-15

Hydrologic Cycle
July Dewpoint Temperature & Diurnal Temperature Range
(°F)

Dewpoint Temperature Diurnal Temperature

Range

http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/
cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-16

Hydrologic Cycle
Average Relative Humidity (1960-1990)
January July

Annual

http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/
cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-17

Hydrologic Cycle
http://www.meted.ucar.edu/
Average Annual Precipitation (1961-1990)broadcastmet/watershed/media/
graphics/unit_6/nat_atlas_precip.jpg
• Annual

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-18

Hydrologic Cycle
Surface-Atmosphere Exchange of Water (Con’t) Science Concepts

Saturation Processes
Increase Vapor
Cooling
Lifting Dry Adiabatic & Moist Adiabatic
Mixing Process
Radiational Cooling

Condensation Types
Dew/Frost
Fog
Haze
Cloud Droplets

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-19

Clouds and Precipitation

Atmospheric Saturation Processes
• Add moisture - Infrequent (Steam Fog)

• Cool to dewpoint temperature - Usual process

- Lifting

- Mixing

- Radiation

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-20

Clouds and Precipitation

Cloud Formation Science quotes of 5th and
6th graders -
• Condensation process
- Condensation nuclei I am not sure how clouds
get formed. But the clouds
> What are they? know how to do it, and that
is the important thing.
‡ Sea salt
‡ Combustion products - smoke
‡ Dust - Clay from plowed fields
> What is their distribution?
‡ Decrease with height - For Example: 0.1 as many at 3,000 ft as
at surface; 0.01 as many at 14,000 ft as at surface
‡ More over cities than country
‡ More over land than ocean - More giant nuclei over oceans
- Hygroscopic nuclei - Begin to attract water vapor at RHs as low as 70%
> What are they?
‡ Sea salt - Most common
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-21

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Condensate Science quotes of
5th and 6th
• Dew graders -

Dew is formed on
- Caused by radiational cooling of a surface to the leaves when the
dewpoint temperature of sun shines down
the air on them and
makes them
- Typical conditions perspire.

> Clear skies

> Calm winds (little mixing)
> Nighttime

- Dewpoint temperature above 32°F

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-22

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Condensate (Con’t)
• Frost
- Caused by radiational cooling of a surface to the dewpoint temperature of
the air
- Typical conditions
> Clear skies
> Calm winds (little mixing)
> Nighttime
- Dewpoint temperature below 32°F

Quote
“Teg weather report on the car radio had predicted a low of 35 degrees, and Pittmen
believed it, seeing frost come out of his mouth.”
David Morrell, "Desperate Measures" (p. 295)
What is wrong with this statement?

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-23

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Condensate (Con’t)
• Fog
- Defined as a cloud on the ground
- Caused by
> Cooling of the air to its
dewpoint temperature
‡ Most common cause
‡ Types of “cooling fog”
◊ Radiation fog
◊ Advection fog
◊ Upslope fog
In order to save the army during the
Revolutionary War Washington retreated from
Long Island overnight on Aug. 29, 1776. By
sunrise on the 30th not all the troops had
been ferried across the river to the NY side.
However, a heavy fog had settled over the
river so they could continue to cross without
being observed by the British troops and war
ships. Within an hour after the boats had
carried the last of the 9,000 troops safely
across, the wind shifted and the fog
dispersed. Fog had helped save the army.
1776, David McCullough, pp. 186-191

> Evaporation of enough water to saturate the atmosphere

‡ Least frequent cause
‡ Types of “evaporation fog”
◊ Steam fog
◊ Warm-rain fog
- Dissipation (“burns-off”) by solar heating the surrounding ground; causes
mixing at edges
- Annual average days with fog Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-24

Clouds and Precipitation

Radiation and
Valley Fog
Alabama Note contrails
Rivers Bright yellow is fog
Valley fog

AVHRR Satellite - 4 November 1999

- Color enhanced (Visible,
near infrared (~1 micron),
infrared (~3.7 micron) Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-25

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Condensate (Con’t)
• Haze

- Caused by particles (“large”) that scatter all wavelengths of light equally

- Increases as RH becomes greater than 70% because of hygroscopic nuclei

• Cloud droplets

- Cooling of the air aloft to its dewpoint temperature

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-26

Hydrologic Cycle
Surface-Atmosphere Exchange of Water (Con’t) Science Concepts

Precipitation Physics (Con’t)

Cloud Growth Processes Surface Tension
Solute Effect
Curvature Effect
Droplet Multiplication
Cascade Effect

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-27

Clouds and Precipitation

Cloud Droplet Growth Processes Science quotes
of 5th and 6th
graders -
• Solute effect - Solution of water and nuclei material
To most people
- Helps droplet grow
solutions mean
finding the
- Decreases as droplet becomes larger
answers. But to
chemists
- Larger condensation nuclei, larger this effect. Thus,
solutions are
larger nuclei grow larger droplets things that are
still all mixed up.
• Curvature effect - Caused by surface tension around droplet

- Hinders droplet grow

- Decreases as droplet becomes larger

Cloud Droplet Multiplication Process

• Cascade effect - Large drops break into several smaller drops
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-28

Hydrologic Cycle
Surface-Atmosphere Exchange of Water (Con’t) Science Concepts

Precipitation Physics (Con’t)

Rain Drop Formation
Collision and Coalescence Process Terminal Velocity
Gravitational Force
Drag Force
Pressure Gradient Force

Bergeron Process Supercooled Water

Saturation Over Water Ice
Precipitation Types

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-29

Clouds and Precipitation

Forces on a Falling Object
• Terminal velocity ~120 mph

http://cyberbuzz.gatech.edu/skydive/photos/othermisc/ http://www.fcsurplus.ca/army/300745b.gif
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-30

Clouds and Precipitation

Forces on a Cloud or Rain Drop
• Drag Force => Depends on square of Velocity and Shape of Drop

• Pressure Gradient Force => Depends on Volume of Drop

• Gravitational Force => Depends on the Mass of the Drop

Drag Pressure
D = Cd r A V2 / 2 Force Gradient
Force
D = Drag force Cloud
Cd =Drag coefficient or
(usually determined Rain Drop
experimentally)
r = Density of fluid (air)
A = Reference area Gravitational
(includes shape, etc.) Force
V = Velocity
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-31

Clouds and Precipitation

Atmospheric Particles
Name Diameter (cm) # per cm3
Large Ions 10-6 to 10-5 103 to 104
Smoke and Dust 10-5 to 10-4 variable
Large Condensation Nuclei 10-5 to 10-4 102
Giant Condensation Nuclei 10-4 to 10-2 1
Cloud Droplets 10-4 to 10-2
Rain Drops 10-2 to 1

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-32

Clouds and Precipitation

Particle Terminal Velocities
Particle Type Diameter (cm) m/s mph
Condensation Nuclei 2 X 10-5 1 X 10-7 2 X 10-7

Small Cloud Droplets 1 X 10-5 3 X 10-3

Typical Cloud Droplets 2 X 10-3 1 X 10-2 2 X 10-2

Large Cloud Droplets 10-2 0.27 0.18

Small Rain Drops 0.1 4.0 8.9

Typical Rain Drops 0.2 6.5 14.6

Large Rain Drops 0.5 9.0 20.1

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-33

Clouds and Precipitation

Did you know -
Raindrop Growth Process
Houses used to have
• Raindrop 100 times larger diameter than cloud drop; thatched roofs - thick
1,000,000 time larger volume straw, piled high, with no
wood underneath.
• How does this tremendous growth occur?
Because it was the a
- Coalescence process - “Warm” clouds place animals could get
warm, cats and other
small animals (mice,
> Terminal velocity bugs) lived in the roof.

‡ Gravitational force When it rained, the thatch

‡ Pressure gradient force became slippery and
‡ Drag force sometimes the animals
would slip off the roof.
> Large drops fall faster than smaller drops
Hence, the saying "It's
raining cats and dogs."
> Large drops collect smaller drops

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-34

Clouds and Precipitation

Raindrop Growth Process (Con’t)
• Raindrop 100 times larger diameter than cloud drop; 1,000,000 time larger
volume (Con’t)

• How does this tremendous growth occur? (Con’t)

- Bergeron-Findeisen or ice process - “Cold” clouds

> Freezing nuclei

‡ Not enough in the atmosphere

‡ “Pure” water may not turn to ice until -40°C

> Between 0°C and -40°C, cloud is mixture of ice and liquid. At
temperatures below (i.e., heights above) -40°C, cloud is all ice.

> Ice crystals grow at expense of liquid drops

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-35

Clouds and Precipitation

Comparison of Maritime and Continental Rain Clouds

Maritime Continental

Number of Nuclei 940 cm-3 9500 cm-3

Droplet Concentration 50 cm-3 200 cm-3

Median Droplet Diameter 17 x 10-6 m 11 x 10-6 m

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-36

Clouds and Precipitation

Precipitation Classification
• Drizzle

- Small, numerous drops falling out of fog or low layer stratus clouds
- Indicative of stable stratification with little vertical motion

• Intermittent or Continuous Precipitation

- Rain or snow
- Falling more or less evenly from altostratus or nimbostratus clouds
- Caused by widespread and slow upward movement of large masses of air

• Showers (Squalls, Flurries)

- Precipitation with short duration with fair intervals

- Caused by cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds, i.e, convection
- Indicative of unstable stratification with fairly strong upward vertical
motion in localized regions
Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-37

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Precipitation
• Virgae

- Rain that evaporates below cloud

base, but before reaching the ground

• Rain

- Lower atmosphere above freezing

- Drops large enough to fall relative to
air motions

http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/spokane/
042700/tstms.htm
http://www.ucar.edu/imagelibrary/1600-1650.html Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-38

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Precipitation
• Freezing Rain
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncom presse d) decom presso r
- Ground at 0°C or colder are n eeded to see th is picture.

- Very shallow layer of air near the ground

at near 0°C or colder
- Layer of air above this shallow layer at
temperatures above 0°C
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/
(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/prcp/zr/frz.rxml

http://www.srh.noaa.gov/lzk/html/win121300.htm Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-39

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Precipitation
• Sleet, Grauple, Ice Pellets

- Clear ice “drops” QuickTime™ and a

TIFF (Uncom pressed) decomp ressor
- Precipitation is in the form of liquid are n eeded to see this picture.

drops at sometime as it falls

- Deeper layer of air above the ground
at 0°C or colder
- Layer of air above this deeper layer at
temperatures above 0°C
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/
(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/prcp/slt.rxml

Climate and Global Change Notes

 23-40

Clouds and Precipitation

Science quotes of 5th and 6th graders -
Types of Precipitation (Con’t)
• Snow A blizzard is when it snows sideways.
- Opaque ice crystals or flakes
- Crystals form at temperatures below 0°C
by the process of deposition
QuickTime™ and a
- No liquid phase TIFF (Uncom presse d) deco mpress or
are n eeded to see this pictu re.
- Ground at or near 0°C or colder
- Layer of air above the ground at
temperatures below 0°C
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/
(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/prcp/snow.rxml

http://www.ucar.edu/imagelibrary/
1100-1133.html
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s592b.htm Climate and Global Change Notes
 23-41

Clouds and Precipitation

Types of Precipitation (Con’t)
• Hail

- Large balls or lumps of ice

- Often formed of concentric
rings of clear
http://www.eas.slu.edu/Photos/
and opaque ice hail.html
- Formed in clouds with strong
updrafts, i.e., convective
clouds

Record Hail Stone - 7” diameter,

18.75’’ circumference fell in
Aurora, NE, 22 June 2003

http://www.ucar.edu/imagelibrary/1
134-1166.html

Climate and Global Change Notes