SENECA COLLEGE

School of Electronics &Computer Engineering

Fiber Optics Communications

CHAPTER-9
OPTICAL FIBERS

By Harold Kolimbiris

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 INTRODUCTION
 The notion of transmitting light through a dielectric medium was
contemplated as early as 1910.

 In the 1920s, experimental work began which attempted to transmit light

through a silicon rod with a refractive index of 1.5 and without cladding.

 Although these early experiments as anticipated, were unsuccessful, yet

the idea remained strong and further studies and experimental work was
carried on intensively. In the1950s, the cladding optical fiber was
proposed. Fig-1

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 Fig-1 Optical fiber with gladding

Cladding (n2 )
(n2 ) (n1 )
Core

(n2 )
Cladding

Optical fiber structure. Fig-1

 Fig-1 illustrates an optical waveguide composed of a core of index ( n )

1

surrounded by a cladding transparent material with a refractive index (n )1

 Where, n  n
1 2

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 Controlling the refractive index of the cladding, it was possible for a large
amount of optical power to be propagated through the core of the fiber.

 The concept that optical waveguides can be used as transmission medium

in communications systems was contemplated in the middle of the 1960s.

 Until that time, optical waveguides were considered impractical because of

their very large optical attenuation.

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 Angle of acceptance
 Angle of acceptance is referred to as the maximum half conical angle
incident upon the core of the optical fiber achieving full internal reflection.

 If the incident ray is propagated through the core of the fiber in a zigzag
mode, the said maximum angle of incident is referred to as the angle of
acceptance ( ). Fig-2.
A

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 Fig-2

Cladding (n2)
X

A n1
Axis X

Y Cladding (n2)

Acceptance angle  A ( A  X ) . Fig-2

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 Numerical aperture (NA)

 The relationship between the angle of acceptance and the refractive indices
of the three mediums incorporated into the fiber, those of air cladding and
core, are unified by the numerical aperture (NA). Fig-3

Air
no


y
2 3
x

Optical fiber structure. Fig-3

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 Fig-3 illustrates the process whereby an optical ray is incident upon the
core of the fiber from the air.

 Assuming air with refractive index and core of the fiber and applying
Snell’s law we have
 Where, n0 sin  1  n1 sin  2
 n0=Refractive index of air
  =Angle of acceptance from air to core
1

 n =Refractive index of the core

1

  =Angle of refraction in the core

2

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 Numerical aperture also relates the refractive indices of both the core and
cladding and expresses the ability of the fiber to collect light

 This holds true only for fibers with core diameters equal to or larger than
 8 m.

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 Optical modes
 To fully understand the behavior of light as it propagates through an
optical fiber, we must study first the behavior of light in a planar guide
composed of a dielectric of reflective index and confined between two
cladding layers of refractive index . Assuming a monochromatic ray
propagating in a zigzag mode fig-4.

Bx=n1KSin n2 Cladding Electric Field

n1
Direction of
propagation
n2 Cladding
BZ=n1KCos

Optical wave propagation through a planar dielectric guide. Fig-4

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 From fig-4, a light ray is treated as an electromagnetic  X  n1 k sin 

wave of a specified frequency

 The two components of a plane wave propagation are  Z  n1 k cos

expressed by,
 Where,
2
k
  (Free-space wave number)
  = Angle between wave propagation and

direction of propagation (guide axis)

 Therefore, the laws of electromagnetic propagation
will be observed

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 Phase and Group velocities.

 When a light wave is propagating through an optical waveguide, there
exist specific points along the direction of propagation where the phase of
the wave is constant.

 This can be understood as the wave traveling at the direction of

propagation with a velocity referred to as phase velocity (v ) . Phase
p

velocity is expressed by, v  


p

 Where,
  =Wave angular velocity

 =Propagation constant

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 Phase velocity is applicable to an ideal

f1
monochromatic wave traveling through f
2

an optical waveguide.

 In reality, a light wave is composed of 0 t

discrete waves with slightly different

frequencies traveling through the
transmission medium in a packet and not
as a single ray. Fig-5.

 Therefore phase velocity no longer Packet optical wave composed of two very closed frequencies .Fig-4
applies to the packet wave. Instead the
concept of group velocity is introduced

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 The group velocity is expressed by,

d
 Where, vg 
d =Rate of change of angular frequency
d

 d =Rate of change of propagation constant

 v  Group velocity
g

 A group of rays or packet waves will be used to study the propagation

characteristics of optical fibers.

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 When a packet wave is propagated through an infinite length optical

waveguide with an index of refraction n surrounded by cladding of
1

refractive index n ( n  n ), the relationship between the core refractive

2 1 2

index and the operating wavelength is expressed by,

2 (n1 )



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 The final expression for group velocity is given as follows:

 Where, c
vg 
  dn1    dn1 
     1
n    
 1
n
  
  d   d

 is referred to as the guide group index, denoted as Ng.

c
 Therefore, vg 
Ng

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 OPTICAL FIBER ATTENUATION ( )

 One of the most critical factors determining optical fiber applicability in
communications systems is signal attenuation .

 Optical attenuation is referred to as the progressive amplitude reduction of

the light ray traveling through the fiber.

 This amplitude reduction or signal attenuation is expressed in terms of

power loss in dB/km and is expressed by,
P
 Where,
 =Optical fiber losses (dB)
  10 log 0
 Pi
 P0 = Output optical power (W)

 Pi =Input optical power (W)

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 The maximum optical power received at the output of the fiber is not only
a function of the length of the fiber, but also a function of the absorption
coefficient (a) expressed by,
 al
Po  Pi e
 Where,
 Po =Output optical power (W)
 P =Input optical power (W)
i

 a =Absorption coefficient
 l = Length of the fiber (m)

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 OPTICAL FIBER ABSORBTION

 Optical fiber absorption is material specific and is divided into two basic
categories.
 i) Intrinsic
 ii) Extrinsic

 Intrinsic absorption
 Intrinsic absorption is the result of the interaction of free electrons and
operating wavelength within the fiber material.

 The propagating light wave covers a wide wavelength spectrum from the
ultraviolet to the infrared region.

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 Therefore, a particular wavelength within the optical spectrum interacts

differently with the atoms of the fiber material.

 For example, The absorption observed at the ultraviolet region is

expressed by, u v
 Where, a uv  Ce 
 a =Absorption at (uv) region
uv

 C =Constant (1.108)

  =4.582
uv

  =Wavelength in the (uv) region (160nm-400nm)

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 The absorption of the operating wavelength due to its interaction with the
material lattice structure is given by,
( lt )

a (lt )  a (lo) e 

 Where,
a
 =Absorption due to lattice structure ( dB / km) )
(lt )

a 11
 =Constant ( 4 10 dB / km) )
(lo)

  =Constant reference wavelength (48  m)

(lt )

 =Operating wavelength

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 Extrinsic absorption
 Extrinsic absorption is attributed to impurities injected into the optical
fiber-mix unintentionally during the fabrication process.

 The most undesirable impurity in an optical fiber-mix is metal ions.

 The presence of metal ions in the optical fiber alters the characteristic
transmission properties of the fiber, resulting in unacceptable optical
power losses.

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 The metal ion concentration in the fiber-mix is so critical that it must not
exceed the level of one part per billion (ppb).

 The metallic ions, peak wavelengths and reflected attenuations are listed in
the following table.

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 Table: Metallic ion concentration

 Metallic ions Peak wavelength (nm) Part per billion Att. (dB/km)

3
 Fe 400 0.15
3
 Mn 460 0.20
 Cr
3
625 1.60
 Ni
2
650 0.10
 C 2 685 0.10
 Cu
2
850 1.10
2
 Cu 110 0.68

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 Metal contaminants such iron ( Fe ),

chromium (Gr) and nickel ( Ni ) are 5
significant contributors to optical Ni

Absorbtion (dB/Km)
4
power absorption Gr
3

2
Fe
 The following fig-5 illustrates
1
absorption levels in dB/km versus
wavelength. 0 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
 (nm )

 Modern fabrication techniques have

all but eliminated metal ion Absorption-v-wavelength. Fig-5
contamination from the optical fibers

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 SCATTERING
 Another phenomenon detrimental to system performance occurring during
the transmission of optical waves through optical fibers is that of
scattering.

 Scattering is divided into two categories

 a) Linear scattering

 b) Non-linear scattering.

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 Linear scattering
 Linear scattering is the phenomenon by which optical energy is transferred
from the dominant mode of operation to adjacent modes, and it is
proportional to the input optical power injected into the dominant mode.

 This optical energy spillover is instrumental in promoting intersymbol-

interference (ISI), a critical element contributing to an increase of the BER
and consequently to a decreasing of the system performance.

 Linear scattering is also divided into two categories

 a) Mie-scattering
 b) Rayleigh-scattering


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 Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are phenomena based on physical

anomalies embedded into the optical fiber material structure, as a resulting
of imperfect fabrication techniques.

 Mie-scattering
 Mie-scattering occurs when the size of the physical anomalies within the
optical fiber is larger than one-tenth of the diameter of the operating
wavelength

 These imperfections are the result of improper mixing of the fabrication

materials during the manufacturing process.

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 Fiber manufacturing techniques have advanced to the point where Mie-

scattering is almost completely eliminated.

 Rayleigh-scattering
 Rayleigh scattering is caused when material anomalies within the fiber
material are on the order of one-tenth or less of the diameter of the
operating wavelength.

 Scattering occurs when the optical wave propagating through the fiber
encounters density irregularities with associated different refractive
indices.

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 Rayleigh scattering causes a small part of the optical ray to escape from its
predetermined path through the fiber, thus causing small attenuation to
occur in the forward propagating optical wave.

 This attenuation is proportional to (1 / ). Rayleigh scattering is expressed by,

4

 Where,
 =Scattering coefficient (Rayleigh) 8 3
R  ( 4 )( n 8 )(  2 )(  c )( KTF )
 R =Optical wavelength (m)
3


 =Refractive index of the fiber material
 n =Photo-elastic coefficient
  =Isothermal compressibility
  c =Fictive temperature (Thermal equilibrium)

T =Boltzmann’s constant (1.38J/K)
F

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 It is evident from above expression that Rayleigh scattering is strongly

wavelength dependent.

 Therefore, at long wavelengths, it is significantly reduced.

 The Rayleigh scattering coefficient is used to establish the transmission

loss factor expressed by,  R i
 Where, FR  e
 FR =Transmission loss factor (Rayleigh)
  =Rayleigh scattering coefficient
R

 l =Fiber length

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 Non-linear scattering
 Scattering losses in a fiber also occur due to fiber non-linearities.

 That is, if the optical power at the output of a fiber does not change
proportionally with the power change at the input of the fiber, the optical
fiber is said to be operating in a non-linear mode

 Such behavior leads to losses referred to as scattering losses.

 Optical power loss due to non-linear effects occurs when optical waves of
a particular transmission mode travel in both forward and reverse
directions resulting in a slight shift of the centered wavelength

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 The level of loss and wavelength shift is a function of a critical optical

power level launched into the input of the fiber.

 This power is referred to as “threshold optical power”.

 There exist two basic types of non-linear scattering within the optical fiber. These
are
 a) Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)
 b) Stimulate Raman scattering (SRS).

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 The two scattering mechanisms exhibit two fundamentally different

characteristics

 They attenuate optical signals of a particular wavelength, while, at the same time,
they shift slightly the operating wavelength to a point at which an optical power is
also observed.

 Although the first scattering mechanism is detrimental to fiber operating

performance, the second scattering mechanism, contributing to wavelength
shifting, will be fully utilized during the design process of Erbium-Doped-
Fiber-Amplifiers (EDFA).

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 Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)

 Stimulated Brillouin scattering occurs when the incident optical power at
the input of a single mode fiber is progressively modulated along the
traveling path by thermally vibrated molecules.

 As mentioned, stimulated Brillouin scattering occurs at a power level

above a set threshold

 This threshold optical power is expressed by

Po(Th )  4.4 10 3 (2 )(d 2 )( )( BW )

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 Where,
Po (Th )
 =Threshold optical power: Brillouin (W)
  =Operating wavelength (m )
 d =Core diameter ( m )
  =Fiber attenuation ( dB / km)
 BW =Source bandwidth ( GHz )

 In order for stimulated Brillouin scattering to take place, the optical power
launched into the fiber must be equal to or larger than the value established
by the above equation

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 Stimulated Raman scattering

 Stimulated Raman scattering is the result of the interaction between
vibrating atoms in the crystalline lattice and the optical waves.

 That is, the vibrating atoms absorb some energy from the optical waves
and, in conjunction with the vibration energy, (characteristic of the atoms
in the crystalline lattice); this energy is almost instantaneously re-emitted
in the form of photons.

 This emitted photon/atom-vibration energy is a kind of light scattering,

translated into wavelength shifting

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 Stimulated Raman scattering contributes to signal attenuation at operating

wavelengths.

 However, an optical amplification is evident at the shifted frequencies

 The stimulated Raman scattering threshold optical power is expressed by,

 Where,
P
Po (Th )  5.9 10 2
( )( )( d 2
)
 =SRS threshold optical power (W)
o (Th )

  =Operating wavelength (

 =Fiber attenuation (
 d =Core diameter (

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 If the fiber core diameter is increased while the wavelength remains

constant, an even higher increase in the threshold voltage will be
encountered

 A combination of selected operating wavelengths and core diameter can

practically eliminate stimulated Raman scattering.

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 FIBER BEND LOSSES

 Another factor contributing significantly to optical fiber power loss is that
of fiber bending.

 Optical fibers were studied under the assumption that they were operating
in a straight line. This of course is not always possible.

 When an optical fiber is bent, a portion of the optical energy escapes from
the core to the cladding.

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 If optical signal attenuation due to bending is to be avoided, both waves,

that traveling through the core and the other traveling through the cladding
must form a common wave-frond at the output of the fiber.

 This implies that the velocity of the wave traveling through the cladding
must be higher than the velocity of the light in order to cover the longer
distance.

 Since the core velocity is equal to the velocity of light, the velocity in the
cladding must be higher than the velocity of light.

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 This of course is impossibility; therefore it is assumed that the wave

traveling through the cladding will be lost in the form of radiation.

 This radiation loss is considered to be an optical power loss.

 There exist two categories of bending losses.

 a) macrobending fig-6
 b) microbending

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 Fig-6. Macrobending Radiated optical

power
Escaped ray

Escaped ray

Radiated optical
power

backward Forward
wavefront wavefront

Macrobending. Fig-6

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 Macrobending
 Macrobending losses are subject to damages to the fiber during the
packaging, transportation and field installation process.

 Fiber losses caused by macrobending can be expressed in terms of an attenuation

coefficient expressed by, K R
 Where, C B  K1e 2

 =Attenuation coefficient due to macrobending

CB

 K , K =Constants
1 2

 R =Macrobending radius

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 Comparing the effect of macrobending for both single-mode and

multimode fibers has shown that multimode fibers are more susceptible to
macrobending than single-mode fibers.

 The attenuation coefficient becomes significant beyond a specific value of

the curvature radius , referred to as the “ critical–radius

 The critical radius of a multimode fiber is expressed by,

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 Where, 3n1
2

RCMM 
4 (n1  n 2 )
2 2
 RC MM =Critical radius
  =Operating wavelength
 n1 =Core refractive index
n2
 =Cladding refractive index

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 From equation it is evident that macrobending is proportional to the operating

wavelength and core refractive index, and inversely proportional to the refractive
index difference between core and cladding.

 Therefore, an increase of the operating wavelength in conjunction with an

increase of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding
will substantially reduce macrobending losses.

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 Microbending
 Microbending of an optical fiber is defined as a slight deviation of the
fiber core center axis.

 Microbending can be induced into the fiber during the fabrication process,
installation process or during maintenance

 The main factor contributing to microbending is temperature.

 Temperature variations can cause local contractions and expansions of the

core material thus altering slightly the physical characteristics of the core,
ultimately affecting the optical fiber performance.

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 Temperature variations can cause local contractions and expansions of the

core material thus altering slightly the physical characteristics of the core,
and ultimately affecting the optical fiber performance

 Modal coupling is referred to as the process whereby optical energy from

one mode of transmission is transferred to other modes

 Modal coupling increases signal attenuation, especially at higher order

modes

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 CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBERS

 Optical fibers used in electronic communications are two layer dielectric
cylindrical systems capable of conveying electromagnetic waves
occupying the visible spectrum .

 An optical fiber consists of a dielectric cylindrical inner-core surrounded by an

outer dielectric layer called cladding.

 Light waves are propagated through the core of the fiber in a zigzag mode
using the cladding outer layer of the fiber as the reflecting medium

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 In order for the propagation of light to take place through the core of the fiber, the
refractive index of the core’s dielectric medium must be higher than that of the
cladding.

 Other plastic layers providing mechanical and environmental protection,

surround both the core and the cladding

 Materials used in the fabrication of optical fibers are, S i O2 Boric-Oxide-

Silica and others

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 Fig-7 Illustrates the physical structure of a fiber

External layer Cladding Core

Optical fiber physical structure. Fig-7

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 Based on their operating characteristics, optical fibers are classified as

“single mode” and “multimode” fibers.

 Single mode fibers are capable of carrying only one signal of a specific
wavelength.

 The single mode operation has the advantage of minimizing signal distortion due
to Microbending, as well as minimizing overall signal attenuation and pulse
.
expansion Fig-8 Cladding
(n2 )
Core

Single mode step Index fiber. Fig-8 Cladding

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 Multimode fibers are capable of carrying the same optical wavelength

through different paths corresponding to different arrival times at the end
of the fiber. Fig-9
Cladding
(n2 )
 Core

Cladding

Multimode fiber step-index. Fig-9

 Multimode fibers can operate from a very small number of modes to a

very large number.

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 The core of a multimode fiber is substantially larger than a single mode

fiber thus allowing for better core alignment and easier splicing

 Optical fibers are also classified according to their material characteristics

as
 a) “ step-index” fig-8 and fig-9
 b) “graded-index” fibers. Fig-10
Cladding (n2)

Core (n1)

Cladding (n2)

Multimode graded-index. Fig-10

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 Single mode Step-Index fibers (SM-SI)

 Step-index refers to those fibers composed of a uniform cylindrical
dielectric core of refractive index n , surrounded by a cladding material of
1

slightly lesser refractive index n ( n n )

2 1 2

 The name step-index reflects the behavior of the light at the core-clad
interface where an abrupt step (completely internal) reflection of the
optical wave takes place.

 Since only one ray path is utilized in a single mode fiber, the core diameter
is substantially smaller than the multimode fibers

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 SM-SI fibers exhibit lower intermodal dispersion and higher operating

bandwidth in comparison to multimode step-index fibers.

 Main disadvantages
 a) Coupling difficulties with incoherent optical sources such as LEDs,
 b) Small numerical aperture and,
 c) Critical tolerance in splicing and connections with other fibers.

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 Multimode step-index fibers (MM-SI)

 Multimode step index fibers are very similar to single mode step index
fibers but differ in their core diameter.

 MM-SI fiber core diameters are of the order of 50m . Recent development
in advanced optical fiber technology has produced fibers with core
diameters in excess of 80m .

 The number of modes in a multimode optical fiber is determined by its

physical and operating characteristics such as:
 i) Core radius, ii) operating wavelength expressed by the normalized
frequency (V) and iii) and relative refractive index difference ( )

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 The normalized frequency ( V ) is a dimensionless parameter relating

three important fiber variables and is expressed by,

2
V ( R)( NA)

 Core radius ( R )
 Operating wavelength (  )
 Relative refractive index variation ( )

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 Where,
 V =Normalized frequency
  =Operating wavelength

 R =Core radius

 NA=Numerical aperture

2
 The normalized frequency can also be expressed by, V (an1 ) (2)

 Where, 
n 21  n 2 2
2
2n1

 n1= Core refractive index
 n =Cladding refractive index
2

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 The maximum number of modes is determined by the cut-off value of the

normalized frequency and is expressed by, 2
V
VC 
2
 No transmission mode exists below the normalized cut-off frequency.

 Optical power of a specific wavelength can be launched into the core of a fiber and
at a particular mode

 Under ideal conditions, this power is transmitted to the other end of the
fiber without interfering with the optical power propagating through other
modes within the same fiber.

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 For ideal operation, the number of modes propagated through the fiber
must be kept below the maximum determined by the normalized cut-off
frequency

 Graded index fibers

 Graded index fibers are defined by a progressive decrease of the refractive
index from the center of the core with radius ( a ), toward the cladding
while still maintaining the fundamental relationship (n  n ).
1 2

 The refractive index at any given point between the center of the core and
the core cladding interface is expressed by,  r 
y

n( r )  n1 1  2  
  a  

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 Where,
 a=Radius of the fiber core
 n = Refractive index between the center of the core and the core
(r )

–cladding int.
 r =Cylindrical coordinate with values ( r a )

  =Relative refractive index

 R =Core radius

y
 =Core characteristic refractive profile.
 Step index profile y   , Triangular profile y  1, Parabolic profile y  2 ,

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 Fig-11

y=
y=2
y=1 Cladding n2

Core n1

Cladding n2

Three standard index profiles. Fig-11

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 Of the three index profiles, the most desirable is the parabolic index profile
Fig-12.

Cladding (n2)


Core (n1)

Cladding (n2)

Graded index/parabolic index profile. Fig-12

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 Performance characteristics
 The distinctive advantage of multimode graded index fibers is that they exhibit far
less modal dispersion than step-index multimode fibers.

 Because of their unique refractive index profile, group velocities are normalized,
thus providing by design a self-compensating dispersion mechanism.

 The transmission bandwidth capabilities of graded index optical fibers are

larger than those of step index multimode fibers, but smaller than those of
single mode step index fibers.

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 This multimode graded index fiber disadvantage has been almost

eliminated through the introduction of larger core diameter fibers, referred
to as “Large-Effective-Area-Fibers” with performance capabilities close to
those of single mode fibers
M max 
(

 Modal number
 The maximum modal number supported by graded index multimode
optical fiber is given by,
y V2
 Where, M max ( )( )
 M max =Maximum number of guided modes y2 2
y
 =Graded index characteristic profile (parabolic =2)
 n1 = Core refractive index

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 Cut-off wavelength
 At cut-off normalized frequency, there exists a wavelength referred to as the “cut-
off –wavelength” (  ) , expressed by,
C

2R ( NA)
 Where, C 
C TH
VC
 =Cut-off wavelength (Theoretical)
TH

 R =Core radius

 NA =Numerical aperture

V =Cut-off normalized frequency

C

The above expression shows that the theoretical cut-off wavelength is

proportional to the optical fiber numerical aperture and core radius, and
inversely proportional to the cut-off normalized frequency V C

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 The theoretical cut-off wavelength is also subject to various external

stresses such as macrobending, microbending and optical fiber length.

 Therefore, in practical applications a cut-off wavelength lower than the

theoretical is selected in order to compensate for the above losses.

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 DISPERSION
 Dispersion is the phenomenon whereby the modulating electric signal is broadened
while traveling through the core of the fiber. Fig-13

Threshold
power

0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 1 0
L L
1
Distance Distance 2
(Acceptable) (Unacceptable)

Pulse dispersion . Fig-13

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 Such a signal chirping promotes intersymbol interference resulting in an

increase of the system bit-error-rate. (BER)

 The causes of pulse dispersion are several and are classified in two broad
categories as
 a) Intramodal
 b) Intermodal

 Intramodal dispersion
 Intramodal or chromatic dispersion results from the inability of the optical
sources to emit a single optical wavelength.

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 The optical signal launched into the fiber mode is composed of more than
one frequency component (very close to the main frequency).

 The interaction of the different spectral components of the optical signal

with the dispersive and guidance properties of the fiber, induce signal
delays causing pulse broadening or chirping.

 Intramodal dispersion is subdivided into two basic categories.

 a) Material dispersion

 b) Guide dispersion.

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 Material dispersion
 Pulse chirping is the result of the non-linear change of the phase velocity
in reference to wavelength, of a plane wave composed of different
frequency components propagating through a dielectric medium.

 The different frequency components of the plane wave launched into the
input of the fiber reflect different group velocities directly contributing to
pulse chirping at the output of the fiber

 Therefore, pulsewidth chirping can be expressed by the total group delay

at the output of the fiber; an inverse function of the group velocity ( v ).
g

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 Inverting the group velocity formula yields the pulsewidth chirping.

 That is, c
vg 
 n1   ( dn1 ) 
d
 Where, Or
  Group delay based on material dispersion   dn1 
 1
n    
  

 v
=Group velocity 1 d

g

n vg c
 1
=Core refractive index
  =Operating wavelength

 c =Velocity of light in free-space

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 Waveguide dispersion
 Waveguide dispersion occurs when the ray angle of incident in relation to
fiber core axis deviates from the origin in accordance to the change of the
center wavelength.

 This slight deviation of the angle of incident reflects a change in the group
velocity and leads to pulse spreading.

 Waveguide dispersion is mostly noticeable in single-mode fibers

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 Intermodal dispersion
 Intermodal dispersion is mainly noticed with multimode step-index fibers
and much less with graded index fibers.

 Again, intermodal dispersion is the result of the different group velocities

along the various modes of propagation within the optical fiber.

 Graded-index multimode fibers are less susceptible to intermodal

dispersion because the varying index profile of the fiber core compensates
for the different group velocities generated by the propagating modes.

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 Step-index single mode fibers are not susceptible to intermodal dispersion

because only one mode of transmission is used.

 Furthermore, since such fibers promote the least amount of chirping, they
exhibit maximum modal bandwidth utilization.

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 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

 In reference to the effect on pulse spreading or chirping, there exist
definite similarities between chromatic (Intramodal) and Polarization
Mode Dispersion (PMD).

 Like chromatic dispersion, PMD is a limiting factor in DWDM long

distance optical links, especially at transmission rates beyond the mark.

 Polarization mode dispersion is a function of the operating wavelength,

and it is evaluated by measuring the delay time between two orthogonal
polarized modes within a single mode fiber

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 NON-ZERO DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBERS (NZ-DSF)

 In the last five years, the communications industry underwent a
phenomenal transformation driven by high capacity demands, mainly
Internet driven, and the need for longer transmission distances.

 These requirements could only be satisfied through the implementation of

optical fiber systems.

 Standard optical fibers utilized in optical communications links, were able

to satisfy partially the growing demands

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 However, it was clear that they would not be able to accommodate the
projected growth in system capacity.

 The immediate development of new type of fibers was essential.

 The optical fiber manufacturers led by Corning answered the call through
the development of the next generation of fibers such as, the non-zero
dispersion shifted fibers (NZ-DSF), large effective area NZ-DSF and
dispersion compensation fibers.

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 These advanced fibers, coupled with other relevant inventions in the area
of all optical devices such as erbium-doped-fiber amplifiers (EDFA),
add/drop multiplexers (ADOM), modulators and optical filters, were
instrumental in satisfying the current and future capacity demands.

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 OPTICAL FIBER NONLINEAR EFFECTS

 Fiber non-linearities directly contribute to refractive index changes in
relationship to input optical power variations. This relationship is
expressed by, n2 P
 Where, n  no 
Aeff
 n =Refractive index based on non-linearities

 n =Ideal refractive index

o

2
 n =Non-linear refractive index coefficient ( 2.35 10 m / W )
2
2

 P =Input optical power

 Aeff =Effective area of the fiber core.

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 The nonlinear components affecting the performance characteristics of an

optical fiber are divided into two basic categories.

 The first category includes:

 Four-Wave-Mixing (FWM)
 Self-Phase-Modulation (SPM)
 Cross-Phase –Modulation (XPM).

 The second category includes:

 Stimulates Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
 Stimulated Raman Scattering. SRS)

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 Four-Wave-Mixing (FWM)
 In high-speed optical networks, the required optical power launched into
the individual channels is much higher than the power required in
conventional optical systems.

 This high optical power is necessary to maintain a pre-set (usually high),

optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR).

 Four-wave mixing is referred to as the process whereby optical power

from one channel in a multi-channel system is spilled-over to an adjacent
channel. Fig-14

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 Fig-14. Four-wave-mixing

Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4

Four-wave-mixing . Fig-14

 Fig-15 represents the change when channel-1 and channel-4 are utilized
for transmission

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 Fig-15
Power from channel 2 Power from channel 3

Home power Home power

Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4

Four-wave-mixing . Fig-15

 Four-wave mixing (FWM) can be substantially reduced or perhaps

completely eliminated through the following steps:

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 i) Channel power reduction

 ii) Increased dispersion
 iii) Increased channel spacing
 iv) Fiber photon power-peak reduction
 (Through the increase of fiber( A )
eff

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 Self-Phase-Modulation (SPM)
 Single channel systems are subject to self-phase-modulation (SPM).

 That is, when an optical pulse travels through the fiber, an increase or
decrease of the light intensity occurs.

 These intensity variations ultimately affect the fiber refractive index since
the refractive index is subject to photon intensity

 As a consequence, refractive index changes affect different parts of the

optical pulse, resulting in phase non-linearities (Chirping).

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 Pulse broadening or chirping results in an increase of the spectral content

of the traveling light thus making it more susceptible to dispersion levels

 Therefore, it is the chromatic dispersion (An inherent element within the

fiber) that causes pulse chirping and not the self-phase-modulation. Fig-16

Change of photon intensity Change in reflective index Change in phase and

leads to change in reflective leads to phase change dispersion results in pulse
index spreading

Relationship between refractive index non-linearities and chirping. Fig-16

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 Self-phase-modulation is therefore the result of signal intensity modulation

based on refractive index non-linearities, enhancing chromatic dispersion,
ultimately leading to pulse broadening, or chirping.

 Cross-Phase-Modulation (XPM)
 There exists a great similarity between cross-phase-modulation (XPM) and
self-phase-modulation (SPM).

 Self-phase-modulation is a non-linear degradation encountered mainly in

single channel systems while cross-phase modulation encountered in
multichannel WDM systems

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 In DWDM optical systems, the dominant non-linear effects are the Four-
Wave-Mixing (FWM) and Cross-Phase-Modulation (XPM).

 Optical system degradations based on FWM and XWM non-linearities can

be calculated by the NLSE (Non-linear Schroedinger equation).

 System non-linearities induced by FWM can be reduced or eliminated

through the utilization of NZ-DSF or standard single-mode fibers (SMF).

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 OPTICAL FIBER ALIGNEMENT

 In any communications systems including fiber optics, both transmitter
and receiver must be interfaced with the transmission medium.

 The coupling of the transmitter and receiver to the medium is associated

with valuable power loss

 Furthermore, several optical fiber design systems require that a relatively

large number of fibers be connected together in a series configuration, in
order to increase the overall link distance

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 Generally, there exist three types of connections in an optical fiber

link.
 i) Source-to-fiber
 ii) Fiber- to-fiber
 iii) Fiber-to-receiver

 In all cases, coupling losses do exist even under ideal joint conditions.

 These losses play a significant role in the overall power budget

calculations and are critical factors determining fiber link distance.

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