Contents

• Approval
• Declaration
• Acknowledgement
• Table of contents
• Introduction
• Aim
• Objective
• Need of study
• Scope
• Limitations
• Methodology
• Chapters
• Chapter-1
• DOMES
1.1Element
1.2Types
1.3Evolution
1.4 Advantage
1.5 Disadvantage
1.6 Materials used in construction
1.7MODERN TIME DOMES
1.71Geodesic Dome
1.711Introduction
1.712Advantage
1.713Disadvantage
1.714Types
1.715Materials
 1.72Star dome
1.721Types
1.722Arrangements
1.73Monolithic Dome
1.731Introduction
1.732 Construction Process
1.733 Varieties Of Shape
1.734Advantage
1.735Disadvantage
1.8DISASTER SURVIVING DOMES
1.9CASE STUDY
1.91Literature case study
1.92Live case study
• Chapter- 2
2.1VAULTS
2.11 Evolution
2.12Types
2.13Techniques
2.2 CASE STUDY
2.21Literature case study
2.22 Live case study
• Chapter-3
3.1 SHELLS
3.11Classification
3.12Thin concrete shells
3.13Introduction
3.14 Types
3.15 Techniques
3.16Advantages
3.17Disadvantages
3.2CASE STUDY
3.21Literature Case Study
3.22Live Case Study
• CONCLUSION
• RECOMMENDATIONS
 DECLARATION
I Ekta Agarwal hereby solemnly declare that the research work
undertaken by me, “Domes, shells & vault construction” is my original
work & whatever incorporated in the form of text, data, photograph,
drawings etc. from different sources, has been duly acknowledged in
my report.
This dissertation has been completed under supervision of guide
assigned to me by Faculty of Architecture, Jagannath University.

Signature- Ekta Agarwal

Enrollment no.- 040114032
Session- 2017-2018
Jagannath University,
Jaipur, Rajasthan
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The study has followed a long and winding path which I meet
many people, this formal space their contribution is too less. Yet
I would say that the distribution of my gratitude to all these
supporters from different places is proportionate and equitable.
I would like to express sincere gratitude to all my teachers ,
friends and colleagues at Jagannath University, for their help to
make this endeavor possible . First and foremost, I would like to
thank Ar. Viresh Jhalani for his invaluable support and
encouragement which made this dissertation possible. I would
like to thank them for their involvement.
 INTRODUCTION
Vaults and domes were used extensively in the roofing of ancient buildings. They were the
favored choice for large-space monumental coverings for centuries. Unlike the traditional
construction technique of prismatic members, the construction technique used in arches, vaults,
and domes allow building large and complex structural shapes completely in compression
without having tensile stresses. In the past, masonry was the ideal material to fit with these
structural shapes. Furthermore, arch was one of the most distinctive elements of Roman, Islamic,
and Gothic architectures. According to historical records, many arches, vaults and domes were
subjected to severe earthquakes in the past without sustaining large damage. The many historical
monuments around the world that remained safe during many centuries are living examples of
this fact. The Pantheon, St Peter's dome, the Segovia Aqueduct, Spain, and the red dome in
Maragheh, Iran are few examples of such monuments. Furthermore, in recent years, many
arches, vaults and domes had survived the effects of earthquakes with little or no damage.
This has been demonstrated in the 1999 Kocaeli Earthquake. Most of the main compounds of
mosques, having single dome with multiple semi-spherical domes, were generally intact or
suffered very slight damage [1-2]. On the other hand, the losses occurred during recent
earthquakes have proven that there is an urgent need for improved knowledge of the seismic
behavior of these parts of buildings [2-11]. In order to have proper rehabilitation schemes, a
better understanding of the structural behavior of such parts under lateral loads is needed.
Furthermore, some knowledge on the construction materials and the traditional techniques used
in the past, are necessary. Moreover, investigations on the cracks developed and the collapse
modes observed during past earthquakes are quite essential prior to the start of any
rehabilitation scheme. In the following sections, discussions on these subjects are given.
 AIM
To study the importance of domes, vaults & shell construction for a
sustainable & strong design.

OBJECTIVE
• To study about significance of domes and vaulted roof construction,
shell construction in modern era.
• To study evolution of domes, and vaulted roof since ancient times.
• To study about various materials and techniques used for such
constructions in a sustainable and useful way.
• To study how it can be used in Indian context.
• To study structures where it can be used.
NEED OF STUDY
• These type of constructions allows usage of less materials to enclose
larger spaces, are structurally efficient, energy efficient, helps in climate
control & have a natural beauty.
• Have high span to depth ratios.

SCOPE
• Various materials in which these can be casted.
• How they are more resistant in resisting natural calamities.
• Famous structures with these construction typology adding to their
beauty.
• Comparative study of these construction in India and foreign countries.
• Advantages and disadvantages of these.
• How these prove to be sustainable & useful for present and future need.
LIMITATIONS
• Structural engineering will not be studied in depth.
• Costing will not be studied in depth.
 INTRODUCTION
DOMES
A dome is typically an
element of architecture
that resembles the upper
half of a sphere. Domes
are curved structures --
they have no angles and
no corners -- and they
enclose an enormous
amount of space with the
minimum of materials as
they don’t require interior
supports.
VAULTS SHELL
A vault, in architecture, is an arch- Shell is a type of
shaped structure, usually of building enclosures.
masonry, used as the ceiling of Shells belong to the
room or other enclosed space, family of arches .
as the roof of a building, or as the They can be defined
support for a ceiling or roof. as curved or angled
Masonry vaults are usually structures capable of
composed of wedge-shaped pieces transmitting loads in
called voussoirs, which are held in more than two
place, like the stones of an arch, by directions to
the pressure of the neighboring supports.
pieces. Because of the combined A shell with one
pressure of its components, any curved surface is
arch exerts an outward pressure at known as a vault
its base, (single curvature ).
A shell with doubly
curved surface is
known as a dome
(double curvature).
DOMES

VAULTS

SHELLS
ELEMENTS OF DOME
• Coffer- It is an architectural series of sunken panels.
• Cupola- It is a small dome like structure on top of building.
• Lantern- It is a daylighting cupola architectural element.
• Oculus- Top surface of a dome.
• Pendentive- It is a constructive device which allows placement of a circular
dome over a square room or elliptical over a rectangular room.
• Rotunda- Any building with a circular ground plan covered by a dome.
• Squinch- It is a construction filling in upper angles of a square room so as
to form a base to receive a dome.
• Tholobate- It is the upright part of a building on which dome is raised.
• Whispering gallery- It is a circular, hemispherical enclosure often beneath
a dome in which whispers can be heard clearly in other parts of gllery.
COFFER
SQUINCH
PENDENTIVE

CUPOLA

WHISPERING
THOLOBATE GALLERY
 EVOLUTION OF DOMES

ROMAN & EARLY

EARLY
BYZANTINE RUSSIAN ITALIAN MODERN
SIMPLE
DOMES DOMES RENAISSANCE PERIOD
DOMES
DOMES DOMES
PERSIAN
DOMES
Pantheon Hagia Sophia St. Basil’s
Mezhirich Rome turkey Cathedral, St Paul
Ukraine CHINESE MEDEIVAL Moscow
Cathedral of Cathedral
DOMES ARABIC & OTTOMAN Florence, Italy London
WESTERN MODERN
Sheikh DOMES SOUTH
EUROPIC PERIOD
Lotfallah DOMES ASIAN
Iran DOMES
DOME
Han Tomb
Honk Kong Dome of rock, Selimiye Eden project,
Jerusalem mosque, Turkey Taj Mahal, Agra UK
TYPES OF DOME
 BEEHIVE DOME BRACED COMPOUND
DOME DOME

A single layer space frame Also called domes on

Also called a corbelled dome,or
in the form of a dome, a pendentives or pendentive
false dome,these are different
braced dome is a generic domes.(a term also applied
from a 'true dome' in that they
term that includes ribbed, to sail vaults), compound
consist of purely horizontal
Schwedler, three-way grid, domes have pendentives
layers. As the layers get higher,
lamella or Kiewitt, that support a smaller
each is slightly cantilevered, or
lattice,and geodesic diameter dome
corbeled, toward the center
domes. The different terms immediately above them, as
until meeting at the top. A
reflect different in the Hagia Sophia, or a
monumental example is the
arrangements in the drum and dome, as in many
Mycenaean Treasury of Atreus
surface members. Braced Renaissance and post-
from the late Bronze Age.
domes often have a very Renaissance domes, with
low weight and are usually both forms resulting in
used to cover spans of up greater height.
to 150 meters.
 CROSS ARCHED DOME
One of the earliest types of ribbed
vault, the first known examples are
found in the Great Mosque of
Córdoba in the 10th century.
Rather than meeting in the center
of the dome, the ribs
characteristically intersect one
another off-center, forming an
empty polygonal space in the
center. Geometry is a key element
of the designs, with the octagon
being perhaps the most popular
shape used. Whether the arches
are structural or purely decorative
remains a matter of debate. The
type may have an eastern origin,
although the issue is also
unsettled. Examples are found in
Spain, North Africa, Armenia, Iran,
France, and Italy.
HEMISPHERICAL DOME SAIL DOME
The hemispherical dome is
half of a sphere. According to
E. Baldwin Smith, it was a
shape likely known to the
Assyrians, defined by Greek
theoretical mathematicians, Also called sail vaults,
and standardized by Roman handkerchief vaults,domical
builders. vaults (a term sometimes also
applied to cloister vaults),
pendentive domes. (a term that
has also been applied to
compound domes), Bohemian
vaults, or Byzantine domes, this
type can be thought of as
pendentives that, rather than
merely touching each other to
form a circular base for a drum
or compound dome,
 ADVANTAGES OF DOME
• DURABLE
• SOUNDPROOF
• ECO-FRIENDLY
• DISASTER RESISTANCE (EARTHQUAKE,
HURRICANE)
• CLIMATE CONTROL
• ENERGY EFFICIENT
• CAN BE CONSTRUCTED IN VARIOUS MATERIALS

DISADVANTAGES OF DOMES
• UNUSABLE SPACE
• FITTINGS OF DOORS & WINDOWS DIFFICULT
• PERMITS OF SUCH DESIGN DIFFICULT
• FINANCING & RESALE DIFFICULT
 MATERIALS

BRICK
MUD
STONE
GLASS
WOOD
METAL
PLASTIC
CONCRETE
 MODERN TIMES DOMES
GEODESIC DOME

PANELISED DOME
CONCRETE & PLASTIC DOME PREFABRICATED
DOME

MONOLITHIC DOME
Airform
Polyurethane
foam
Reinforced
steel
Concrete
 GEODESIC DOME
• Invented in 1950’s by Buckminster Fuller.
• It is a sphere like structure composed of a network of
triangles.

ADVANTAGES
• Simple fascination of its naturally occurring shape
• Versitality of material ( wood, wood+ brick, polyurethane
Styrofoam with steel)
• Stability
DISADVANTAGES
 Unusable Space
 Doors and Windows-either make or special order has to be
given
 Permits-Building the home may also be a challenge as
drainage and fire escapes that meet code are made more
difficult by the design of the home.
 Financing and Resale
VARIOIUS SHAPES
VARIETIES OF GEODESIC DOMES
• Panelised dome
• Pre-fabricated domes
• Concrete & foam plastic domes
• Bamboo
• Star dome
• Portable dome
STAR DOME
• Suitable for both horizontal & vertical developments
• Better pre-fabricated dome
• Personal & funny
• Flexible & versatile
• Upgradeable & customizable
• Deconstructable
• No value decay & high residual value
• Sustainable
• Low environmental impact
• Energy efficiency
• All green tech hardware including renewable energy
• Reuse of building( wooden beams, osb panels, curtain walls, insulation blocks, windows
• Increased protection to climatic hazards
• Extreme temperature
• High winds
• Low speed flood
• Flash floods & tsunamis
• Fires & tornadoes ( as underground building)
• Amazing acoustics
• Unlimited configurations
• Sustainability
• Local
• Lightweight
• Renewable
• Low carbon footprint
• Materials (wood, natural fiber, expanding
polystyrene,bituminous shingles etc.)
• Recycled materials (timber,cellulose,natural
fibres,foundation concrete blocks)
• Affordable
• Modular
• Easy to build
• Upgradeable
• Deconstructable
• Can be built almost anywhere
• Unique designs
STRUCTURES WHERE CAN BE USED
• Coastal areas
• Libraries
• Sauna & beauty centre • Retractable areas
• Hotel • Temporary exhibitiob halls
• Disco & bar • Marriage gardens
• Restaurants • Casinos
• Auditoriums • Protective sheilds
• Exhibition halls • Planetarium
• Resorts
• Stadiums
• Affordable housing
• Buildings & shelters for emergency situations( low
technology dependence)
• Temporary structures like pergola & gazebo
• Railway stations
• Airports
• Art galleries & museum
• Opera houses
• Theatres/performing arts
• Mosues
• Stupas
ARRANGEMENTS

HEXAGONAL

CUBIC PENTAGON
MONOLITHIC DOME
A Monolithic Dome is a super-insulated, steel-
reinforced concrete structure that can be designed
for virtually any use: office or business complex,
school, church, temple; gymnasium or sports
arena:theatre or amphitheatre, airplane hangar,
factory bulk storage facility, house or apartment
complex, military installations etc
STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION

• Ring Beam Foundation

• Inflate Air form

• Polyurethane foam

• Steel Reinforcing

• Shotcrete
 PROFILE AND SHAPE
• Low profile spherical segment
Most efficient shape.
Used for large domes.

• Hemisphere
Surface area is double the floor area.
Useful for high-volume storage buildings and
smaller structures ,such as homes.

• High profile spherical segment

Most volume for the least floor area.
Used for e water tanks, storage buildings, homes etc.

• Oblate ellipsoid
Very efficient for single structures.
Wall have maximum vertical slope vs. structure size

• Prolate ellipsoid(horizontal & vertical )

It is very tall.
Useful for bulk storage and buried building.
Elliptical base creates a very unique space

• Torus :
Not as space -efficient as dome.
These are homes with a centre courtyard or garden.
ADVANTAGES
Climate control
Durability
Domes are energy efficient
Rapid construction
Economic

DISADVANTAGES
Unsustainable Materials-The
Vulnerability of the Air Form-very
Poor Ventilation-Hole
Permits and Property Value
Fitting Windows and Doors
COMPARISION WITH CONVENTIONAL

• Lower construction cost

• Faster construction
• Less maintenance
• Security
• Energy efficient
DISASTER SURVIVING DOME
STRUCTURES
• This domed government building in
Baghdad, formerly a part of Saddam
Hussein's regime, was hit by a 5,000 lb
(2,300 kg). bomb.[1] Apart from the hole
made by the entry of the bomb, it
remained structurally sound.
• Many monolithic domes were in the path
of the 2005 and 2006 wildfires in
Oklahoma and Texas, and survived with
only slight charring of the exterior foam
insulation.
• A monolithic dome in Pensacola Beach,
Florida, after Hurricane Dennis in 2005
LITERATURE CASE STUDY
GLOBAL VIPASSANA PAGODA( MUMBAI)
LIVE CASE STUDY (DOMES)
Parliament Library (New delhi)
• The Parliament Library building in New Delhi, India, was completed in
2002.
• It is a four-storey building, two floors of which are above ground.
• The main architectural feature is the twelve individual domes which make
up the roof, each comprising different dimensions, designs and materials.
• The domes are both the highest and most recognisable elements of the
building. Two of the domes are made from glass and stainless steel.
• Located on a 10 acre site, the library is nearly 55,000 m2 in area and can
accommodate three million books on the two basement floors.
• Site conditions and trees prohibited the north-western corner of the site
from being developed, leaving the square incomplete.
• Otherwise the plan, with its courtyards and axes, is similar to historic
precedents.
• Of the four storeys in the building, only two are above ground level.
• The height of the building is restricted to the podium level of the Parliament
House as it is important not to obstruct the view both to and from the
government headquarters.
• The Parliament Library building is
designed for a service life of 125 years.
• The plan of the building is inspired by
pre-colonial Indian architecture such as
the magnificent Taj Mahal, with its
square base and symmetrical
composition.
• The basic structure for the building is a
reinforced concrete frame with
columns generally spaced at 10 m
intervals.
• The intermediate floors are of coffered
concrete slab construction while the
roof is mainly either steel-and-concrete
domes or stainless steel and glass.
• The novel design and construction of
the domes was the first of its kind in
India.
• The central focal dome comprises a lattice of
stainless steel tubular members and cables
converging at key tension cast nodes.
• There are four doubly-curved triangular
‘petals’ inter-supported through four ladder
purlins which are joined at the top by a
rectangular compression element.
• Each petal is a grid of stainless steel tubes
with an outer diameter of 101.6 mm and 10
mm in thickness.
• The overall stability is ensured through a
network of tension rods.
• All joints in the framework were cast in
foundries and connected to the tubes by a
combination of high strength preloaded (slip
resistant) bolts and welding. Consequently,
the joints appear simple and elegant, even
where 12 members meet.
• The entire structure is clad with insulated
glass elements which allow natural light into
the central part of the building.
• The second dome containing stainless
steel, known as the VIP dome, has a
diameter of 16 m and a height of 2.5
m.
• It contains stainless steel tubes
shaped into a combination of 9
octagons and 12 squares (refer to
Figure 6).
• To fit these shapes onto a truly
spherical surface, the octagons were
slightly distorted. The octagons are
covered with a fibre reinforced
concrete shell which is clad with
sandstone and granite, held by
stainless steel cramps.
• The squares are clad with glass panels.
The entire structure is supported on a
ring beam through articulated pin
joints at 16 locations to allow rotation
of these joints.
• The ring beam is further supported on
8 circular columns.
 MATERIAL
Stainless steel is very visible
throughout the complex, both
internally and externally, and is used
for two of the domes. It was first
included in the design of this building
when the engineers identified it as a
suitable material for the cramps
which hold the external sand stone in
place, owing to its excellent corrosion
resistance. After consultations with
the Nickel Institute and ISSDA (Indian
Stainless Steel Development
Association), grade 1.4307 (S30403)
was selected.
• The central focal dome spans 25 m with a
rise of 4.2 m and comprises stainless steel
tubular members, grade 1.4307, welded to
cast nodes. Insulated glass panes are used
between the members to allow natural light
into the central part of the building.
• A natural gloss finish was specified.
• For the VIP dome, grade 1.4307 stainless
steel tubes were also employed to create a
roof with a diameter of 16 m and pitch of 2.5
m.
• In addition to the domes, stainless steel
cramps, also in grade 1.4307, hold the
external sandstone in place.
 SECTIONS

• Fabrication and Erection Geometric

precision was achieved for the various
elements of the dome, including the cast
joints, the curved tubular sections and the
fixings, through careful workmanship.
• The stainless steel sections were rolled in
Mumbai before being sent to Chennai for
bending and were then assembled, welded
and polished on site.
 EXTERIOR LANDSCAPE

LIBRARY HALL

CENTRAL HALL
VAULTS
A vault, in architecture, is an arch-
shaped structure, usually of
masonry, used as the ceiling of
room or other enclosed space,
as the roof of a building, or as the
support for a ceiling or roof.
Masonry vaults are usually
composed of wedge-shaped
pieces called voussoirs, which are
held in
place, like the stones of an arch,
by the pressure of the neighboring
pieces. Because of the combined
pressure of its components, any The Cloisters, New York City
arch exerts an outward pressure
at its base.
EVOLUTION OF VAULTS
• In ancient Egypt brick vaulting was used ,chiefly for drains . The
Chaldeans and Assyrians used vaults for the same purpose but seem also
to have made architectural use of high domes and barrel vaults.
• The Greeks made no use of vaults.

• Then Rome adopted this technique by using concrete as a construction

material so that no outer or external thrust or buttresses need to be given.
Thus vaults could be easily erected over vast spaces ,producing impressive
and complex thermo , amphitheatres , and basilicas .

• The tunnel vault spans between two walls ,like a continuous arch. The cross
, or groined , vault is formed by the intersection at right angles of two barrel
vaults , producing a surface that has arched openings for its four sides and
concentration of load at the four corner points of the square or rectangle .

• The semicircular arch was universally employed in Romanesque vaulting

throughout Europe , and the roman cross vault was the type used for
covering square or rectangular compartments.
Types of Vaults.
1 Barrel vault (semi-circular vault)

2 Groin vaults ( cross vaults)

3 Rib vault

4 Fan vault
 FAN VAULT
GROIN OR CROSS
RIB VAULT ARCH VAULT

BARREL VAULT
TECHNIQUES
TIMBREL VAULT TECHNIQUE
• The method of timbrel vaulting was developed in the 14th century around the
Mediterranean, although its precise origins are unknown. The timbrel vault is also
known as a "masonry vault", "Catalan vault", "tiled vault", "laminated vault", "flat
vault" and "layered vault“.
• Timbrel vaulting differs substantially from the Roman method of arch building, which
relies on gravity. The timbrel vault does not rely on gravity but on the adhesion of
several layers of overlapping tiles which are woven together with fast-setting mortar. If
just one layer of thin tiles was used, the structure would collapse, but adding two or
three layers makes the resulting laminated shell almost as strong as reinforced
concrete. The result defies common sense, because a timbrel vault is very thin
compared to a Roman vault, while at the same time it is capable of bearing much
higher loads. This of course enables wider spans and gentler curves.
• At the end of 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the timbrel vault was
rediscovered by the Catalonian architects of the Modernisme movement. Some
striking examples are the crypt of the Colonia Guell, which Antoni Gaudí designed in a
very low-tech fashion by hanging ropes and weights from the ceiling (the building has
now suffered a disastrous restoration), the Aymerich Amat i Jover in Terrassa, a textile
factory built by Lluís Moncunill i Parellada, or the Celler Cooperatiu de Pinell de Brai by
Cèsar Martinell.
 THE AYMERICH AMAT I JOVER
IN TERRASSA

THE AYMERICH AMAT I JOVER IN

TERRASSA
NUBIAN TECHNIQUE
• This technique came from Nubia, from Southern Egypt, hence the name Nubian. It
has been used since ages, as it is testified by the vaults of the granaries of the
Ramasseum, Egypt, which was built by Ramses II around 1300 BC.

• The Nubian technique was revived and disseminated by the Egyptian architect
Hassan Fathy. We owe him thanks for the worldwide renaissance, in the 20th century,
of earthen architecture and construction with arches, vaults and domes.

• Craterre - the International Centre for Earth Construction, and the Auroville Earth
Institute inherited his spirit and commitment towards the earth as a building material
and what the latter can do for people.

• The Nubian technique traditionally needs a back wall to stick the blocks onto. The
vault was built arch after arch and therefore the courses were laid almost vertically.
The binder, about 1-1.5 cm thick, was the silty-clayey soil from the Nile and the blocks
used were adobes, the sun dried bricks. The unevenness of the adobes made it
necessary to slightly incline the courses, so as to increase the adhesion by force of
gravity.
The basis of this technique is that the blocks adhere to each other with earth glue.
The principle is that the dry block sucks by capillarity the water along with the clay
of the glue which will bind the blocks. It is essential that the blocks are very thin, so
as to have a high ratio “sticking area/weight”: the larger the area of the block is and
the thinner the block is, the better will be the adhesion.

The Nubian technique was also used for building circular domes, using a compass,
as is shown hereafter. This technique has the advantage of allowing one to build
vaults and domes without centring. This technique with vertical courses has a major
disadvantage, which is that the earth glue is very liquid and the blocks are very thin.
Therefore the shrinkage of the glue is important and it induces cracks, especially in
vaults.

When compressed stabilised earth blocks are used to build vaults using this
technique, the course can be absolutely vertical as it is not needed any more to
incline the courses for the adhesion. The even regularity of CSEB produced by the
Auram press 3000 allows building with a cement-stabilised earth glue of only 1-2
mm in thickness. The Nubian technique has been developed by the Auroville Earth
Institute to build other types of vaults, such cloister and groined domes, and has
evolved towards the Free Spanning technique.
PROCESS
 TILED VAULT TECHNQUE
• The first step in the execution of this kind of vaults it’s the layout on
surrounding walls, followed by the execution of hollows ensuring an
adequate connection between the walls and the vault (Figure 3.4a).
Usually the tiled vaults are constructed starting from the outside towards
the center given that each row is closed nearly at the center AULT
TECHNIQUE
• There is a large variety of brick vaults in Alentejo and Algarve, which are
not only sustainable structural solutions for pavements and ceilings, but
also have a good acoustic and thermal performance [8, 9]. These
structures can consist of a single brick layer or multi-layered
• These vaults are usually built with solid clay bricks, usually with
300x150x35 mm3. In terms of the mortar, it is usually a mixture of
limestone and plaster (without sand) in a 3:1 ratio. The plaster is used so
that the mortar hardens almost instantly, which enables the constructive
process without formwork
 RULES OF DESIGN
Similar to other arched brick structures, the traditional design rules of this kind of
vaults are essentially based on empiric and geometric proportions rules. Thus some
of the rules are the following: a) Filling height According to Fidalgo [9], in tiled vaults
the filling should be made up to 1/3rd of the height of the rise, preventing any of the
haunches from detaching, improving the vaults´s structural behaviour. b) Rise
Masons have concluded that flatter outlines lead to a more stable structure, for this
reason tiled vaults usually have these given rises:

c) Stiffeners With the goal of improving the structural behaviour of the vaults,
reinforcement elements like braces and bearing walls are often used. The braces
(Figure 3.3a) have a length of 0.30 or 0.45 m, and are separated by 2.5 to 4.0 m [10].
The walls themselves are only used in larger vaults, and as the filling have the goal of
preventing haunches displacement. In terms of the cloister vaults, the bearing walls
are placed in both directions, and on the four corners blocks are placed in order to
avoid corner “uplift” when a load on the vault is applied
 FREE SPANNING TECHNIQUE

• The free spanning technique is an ongoing development of the Nubian technique

that the Auroville earth Institute is working on since a few years. It allows courses to
be laid horizontally.
• This technique combines also the use of vertical courses, like in the Nubian
technique. Depending on the shape of vaults, structures are built either with
horizontal courses, vertical ones or a combination of both.
• The basis of the technique with horizontal courses is not anymore the adhesion of
the blocks by the earth glue, but the equilibrium of gravity forces of the various
courses, and their transfer onto the next courses and the masonry in general.
• It is essential to study the location of the centres of gravity so that the weight of the
masonry never goes beyond the springers.
• It is needed also to develop a certain sense of how the forces behave in the masonry.
The transfer of loads always takes the shape of catenary curves, and assumes the
most direct way.
 LITERATURE CASE STUDY
OYSTER BAR IN GRAND CENTRAL TERMINAL
• Most masterpieces of catalan vaulting, however, are in the United States.
• The method was previously unknown in the Americas, until a family by the
name of Guastavinos imported it.
• Rafael Guastavino, born in Valencia in 1842, improved the centuries-old
technique and renamed it "cohesive construction". He substituted bricks
with thin tiles and the traditional mortar with rapidly hardening Portland
cement, which enabled him to build vaults 3 to 5 times wider than the
typical size of traditional timbrel arching.
• The main vaults at the oyster Bar are configured from a part of a sphere by
cutting vertical Chunks off the sphere to form a four-sided shape.Rather than
directing all of the load from the vault into the pendentives in each corner, the
Guastavinos trimmed the curved openings on the Four sides
• With very substantial, wide tile arches that carried a good portion of the vault
load. The loads from the vaults and the arches were delivered to the steel
columns of the main grand central terminal.
• The vaults of the Osyter Bar were constructed for the most part of the three
layer of tiles, one being the glazed face layer and the other two consisting of red
terra cotta. All were bonded together with high-strengh Portland cement mortar
along their edges, as well as between the layers.
• At the pendentives it was customary for the Guastavino to use several more
layers of tile.
• Many face tile had fallen off during the fire. This may be attributed to two
causes, most probably acting together.
• The first was thermal shock caused by a rapid heating and concurrent expansion
of the tiles, followed by a rapid cooling when water from the fire house was
sprayed on the ceiling, which likely generated sufficient movement and stress to
cause the bond in the mortar parge joint to fail.
Economical and fast
• The popularity of the timbrel vault was not restricted to its aesthetic
appeal. It was simply a very fast and economical method, for two
reasons.
• Firstly, and logically, much less building material was required.
• Secondly, there was no need for wooden scaffolding. Building a Roman
vault demands large amounts of wood, as every arch is required to be
supported by a wooden centering for a long period after initial
construction.
• The masonry vault, on the other hand, is self-supporting apart from
some temporarily required, light shiftable formwork at the beginning
of the job. While constructing a timbrel vault, workers simply stood on
the work of the day before (which was two to four inches thick).
• These huge savings in both building materials and construction
equipment meant that the Guastavinos could offer much lower prices
than their competitors.
SHELLS

• Shell is a type of building enclosures.

• Shells belong to the family of arches . They can be defined as curved or
angled structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two
directions to supports.
• A shell with one curved surface is known as a vault (single curvature ).
• A shell with doubly curved surface is known as a dome (double
curvature).
Classification of shells
• There are many different ways to classify shell structures but
two ways are common:

1. The material which the shell is made of: like reinforced

concrete, plywood or steel, because each one has different
properties that can determine the shape of the building
and therefore, these characteristics have to be considered
in the design.

2. The shell thickness: shells can be thick or thin.

 Thin Concrete Shells
The thin concrete shell structures are a lightweight construction composed of
a relatively thin shell made of reinforced concrete, usually without the use of
internal supports giving an open unobstructed interior. The shells are most
commonly domes and flat plates, but may also take the form of ellipsoids or
cylindrical sections, or some combination thereof. Most concrete shell
structures are commercial and sports buildings or storage facilities.

There are two important factors in the development of the thin concrete shell
structures:
• The first factor is the shape which was was developed along the history of
these constructions. Some shapes were resistant and can be erected easily.
However, the designer’s incessant desire for more ambitious structures did
not stop and new shapes were designed.
• The second factor to be considered in the thin concrete shell structures is the
thickness, which is usually less than 10 centimeters. For example, the
thickness of the Hayden planetarium was 7.6 centimeters.
Types of Thin Concrete Shells
1. Barrels shells
The cylindrical thin shells, also called
barrels, should not be confused with
the vaults even with the huge
similarity in the shape of both
structures, because each of these
structures has a different structural
behavior as well as different
requirements in the minimum
thickness and the shape.
• On one hand, the structural behavior of the vault is
based on connected parallel arches, which transmit
the same effort to the supports . Therefore, the
materials used in these structures have to be able to
resists compressions (e.g. stone) and the thickness is
usually higher. Furthermore, the shape of the vaults
must be as similar as possible to the arch in order to
achieve the optimum structural behavior.

• On the other hand, the structural behavior of the

barrels shell is that it carries load longitudinally as a
beam and transversally as an arch. and therefore, the
materials have to resist both compression and tension
stresses. This factor takes advantage of the bars of the
reinforced concrete, because these elements can be
placed where tension forces are needed and
therefore, the span to thickness Ratios can be
increased. Furthermore, the shape has fewer
requirements than the vaults and therefore, new
curves like the ellipse or the parabola can be used
improving the aesthetic quality of the structure.
EXAMPLES
Types of Thin Concrete Shells
2. Folded plate
A thin-walled building structure of
the shell type.

Advantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:

(a) Movable form work can be employed.
(b) Form work required is relatively simpler.
(c) Design involves simpler calculations.

Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:

(a) Folded plate consumes more material than shells.
(b) Form work may be removed after 7 days whereas in
case of shells it can be little earlier.
Folded plate types
Folded Plates system
Types of Thin Concrete Shells

3. Hyperbolic Paraboloid
(Hypar)
A Hypar is a surface curved in two
directions that can be designed as a shell
or warped lattice.

A hypar is triangular, rectangular or

rhomboidal in plan, with corners raised to
the elevation desired for use and/or
appearance. The edges of Hypars are
typically restrained by stiff hollow beams
that collect & transfer roof loads to the Rhomboid
foundations.
Types of shells

4. Various Double Curvature

Types of Thin Concrete Shells
5. Dome
A rounded roof, with a circular base,
shaped like an arch in all directions..
First used in much of the Middle
East and North Africa whence it
spread to other parts of the Islamic
world, because of its distinctive
form the dome has, like the
minaret, become a symbol of
Islamic architecture.

Dome has double curvature and the

resulting structure is much stiffer
and stronger than a single curved
surface, such as a barrel shell.
Types of Thin Concrete Shells
6. Translation Shells
A translation shell is a dome set on
four arches. The shape is different
from a spherical dome and is
generated by a vertical circle moving
on another circle. All vertical slices
have the same radius. It is easier to
form than a spherical dome.
LITERATURE CASE STUDY
METROPOL PARASOL (SPAIN)
• Metropol Parasol is a wooden structure located at La
Encarnación square, in the old quarter
of Seville, Spain.

• It was designed by the German architect Jürgen

Mayer and completed in April 2011.

• It has dimensions of 150 by 70 meters (490 by

230 ft) and an approximate height of 26 meters
(85 ft) and claims to be the largest wooden structure
in the world.

• Its appearance, location, delays and cost overruns in

construction resulted in much public controversy.

• The building is popularly known as Las Setas de la

Encarnación (Incarnation's mushrooms).
• Project: Metropol Parasol
Redevelopment of Plaza de la
Encarnacion, Seville, Spain
• Function: archeological site, farmers
market, elevated plaza, multiple bars
and restaurants
• Site area: 18,000 square meters
• Building area: 5,000 square meters
• Total floor Area: 12,670 sqm
• Number of floors: 4
• Height of the building: 28.50 meters
• Structure: concrete, timber and steel
• Principal Exterior: timber and
granite
• Principal interior material: concrete,
granite and steel
• Construction period: 2005-2011
• Building/Cost: 90 Million Euro
 Construction principles
• The canopy is constructed of vertical
laminated wood plates following a 1.5
by 1.5 cutting pattern. The assembled
plates thus form a grid structure, a
grillage. For safety reasons the
restaurant is situated on a composite
steel platform. The wood plates have
been sprayed with a polyurethane
coating and painted in an ivory white
shade which visually brings the
individual pieces together. It also results
in the peculiar effect that the structure
appears simultaneously as a built in-
scale construction as well as an over-
size model. This ambiguity between
form, image, and structure is further
emphasized by the fact that the
construction has not been covered but
is laid bare; this accentuates the
contrast between the repetitious
pattern of the grid and the winding
shape of the canopy.
PLAN
SECTION
LIVE CASE STUDY
LOTUS TEMPLE (NEW DELHI)
CONCLUSION
• The objective of this research were to study about significance
of domes and vaulted roof construction, shell construction in
modern era, study evolution of domes, and vaulted roof since
ancient times , to study about various materials and
techniques used for such constructions in a sustainable and
useful way, to study how it can be used in Indian context, to
study structures where it can be used has been achieved
satisfactorily.
 RECOMMENDATIONS
Now our days construction of domes and vaults is rarely found in India
due to lack of awareness of their advantages and techniques used in
construction which are easy , sustainable and efficient so places where
these can be used for construction are:-
• Coastal areas
• Sauna & beauty centre
• Hotel
• Disco & bar
• Restaurants
• Auditoriums
• Exhibition halls
• Resorts
• Stadiums
• Affordable housing
• Buildings & shelters for emergency situations( low technology dependence)
• Temporary structures like pergola & gazebo
• Railway stations
• Libraries
• Retractable areas
• Temporary exhibitiob halls
• Marriage gardens
• Casinos
• Protective sheilds
• Planetarium
• Airports
• Art galleries & museum
• Opera houses
• Theatres/performing arts
• Mosues
• Stupas
One of the techniques that can be used in India in a useful
manner is retractable roofing which is described as
One of the techniques that can be used in India in a useful
manner is retractable roofing
• A retractable roof is a roof system
designed to roll back the roof on
tracks so that the interior of the
facility is open to the outdoors.
Retractable roofs are sometimes
referred to as operable roofs or
retractable skylights. The term
operable skylight, while quite similar,
refers to a skylight that opens on a
hinge, rather than on a track.
• Retractable roofs can be used in
residences, restaurants and bars,
swim centres, sports stadiums open
marriage gardens and other facilities
wishing to provide an open-air
experience at the push of a button.
EXAMPLES OF RETRACTABLE ROOFS IN FORIEGN
• The higher expense of rigid large span domes made them relatively rare, although
rigidly moving panels is the most popular system for sports stadiums with
retractable roofing. With a span of 126 meters, Pittsburgh's Civic Arena featured
the largest retractable dome in the world when completed for the city's Civic Light
Opera in 1961. Six of its eight sections could rotate behind the other two within
three minutes, and in 1967 it became the home of the Pittsburgh Penguins hockey
team.
• The first domed baseball stadium, the Astrodome in Houston, Texas, was
completed in 1965 with a rigid 641 foot wide steel dome filled with 4,596 skylights.
Other early examples of rigid stadium domes include the steel frame Superdome
of New Orleans and the cement Kingdome of Seattle. Stockholm's 1989 Ericsson
Globe, an arena for ice hockey, earned the title of largest hemispherical building in
the world with a diameter of 110 meters and height of 85 meters.
• Montreal's Olympic Stadium featured a retractable membrane roof in 1988,
although repeated tearing led to its replacement with a non-retractable roof. The
SkyDome of Toronto opened in 1989 with a rigid system in four parts: one that is
fixed, two that slide horizontally, and one that rotates along the edge of the 213
meter wide span. In Japan, the 1993 Fukuoka Dome featured a 222-meter dome in
three parts, two of which rotated under the third. Ōita Stadium was built in 2001
as a mostly fixed semi-spherical roof 274 meters wide with two large membrane-
covered panels that can slide down from the center to opposite sides.
Some of the materials that are less costly and
can be used for such construction
• MATERIALS
1. Fibre reinforced cement concrete blocks
2. Hydraform cement stabilised earth blocks
FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)
Fibre plaster was used as a structural element on the dome built by
Magaia (2003). It was used to resist the tension stresses induced in the
dome, and it was placed on the inside and outside surfaces of the
dome. The fibres used in Magaia’s plaster were sisal fibres, which over
time may deteriorate due to moisture ingress and may loose their
strength.
It is a composite material made with hydraulic cement, aggregates of
various sizes and discrete discontinuous fibres. There are two types of
fibres that can be used in FRC. The first types of fibre are low-modulus,
high-elongation fibres. These include nylon and polyethylene. These
fibres are capable of absorbing large amounts of energy and are used
to control cracking in plastic concrete. They do not improve the
strength of the concrete. The second types of fibre are high-strength,
high modulus fibres. These include steel, glass and asbestos. These
fibres add strength and stiffness to the concrete.
HYDRAFORM CEMENT STABILIZED EARTH BLOCKS
(CEB’S)
A 7MPa (1 015 psi) HydraForm Splitter Block was specified to be used
in the walls and dome roof of the structure. The dimensions of these
blocks were 75mm (2.95 in.) high by 110mm (4.33 in.) thick by 220mm
(8.66 in.) long.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The HydraForm Training Manual (2004) explains the procedures used
to create compressed earth blocks (CEB). CEB’s are made by mixing soil
and cement in predetermined ratios. This mix is placed into a press
and a brick is extruded vertically under a distributed pressure of 10
Mpa (1 450 psi) using a diesel driven, hydraulic block making machine.
The blocks are then cured for approximately 72 hours (Agremènt,
1996). According to Uzoegbo (2003) the 58blocks achieve about 80%
of their 28 day compressive strength in this time.
Some of the techniques that can be used for
constructing low cost domes and vaults
• ECOSHELL DOME CONSTRUCTION METHOD (RCC
DOME)
The quickest method of constructing a reinforced concrete
dome is to use an inflatable balloon formwork. The formwork is
attached to a foundation ring beam and is then inflated. Two
types of air forms can be used. The first type is inflated and
construction workers enter the air form through an air-lock.
When they are inside they spray an insulating layer, attach
reinforcing to the insulation and then spray a concrete
(Shotcrete) layer onto the walls of the air form to form the
structure. The second type of air form is inflated and the
insulation and concrete are sprayed onto the outer surface. This
method of construction is less costly as it does not require an
airlock, but it cannot be used on very large domes.
• NUBIAN TECHNIQUE
These techniques were used in arid regions (shortage
of wood for formwork) to build domes and vaults
without any formwork. Today these techniques are
being used in India, at the Auroville Building Centre, to
construct low cost as well as aesthetically pleasing
housing. The technique used to construct domes
involves a tracing arm that is put in the centre of the
structure and used to trace the shape of the dome.
The dome is built in rings using a thin layer of earth
mortar that is very sticky (high clay content) and
prevents the bricks from sliding off each other.