Metals (Construction Materials and Testing)

C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D T E S T I N G
METALS
JOSHUA P. FERRER
INTRODUCTION
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WHAT ARE METALS?

Metals are aiming the most useful building materials.
They exist in nature as compounds like oxides,

carbonates, sulphides and phosphates and are known as
ores.
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WHAT ARE METALS?
Those used for engineering purposes are classified

as ferrous metals, with iron as the main
constituent, e.g. cast iron, wrought iron and steel
and others like aluminum, copper, zinc, lead and tin
in which the main constituent is not iron as non-
ferrous metals.
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WHERE DO METALS COME FROM?

Metals are derived from ores by removing the
impurities.
Ore – is an occurrence of rock or sediment that

contains sufficient minerals with economically
important elements, typically metals that can be
economically extracted from deposit.
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HISTORY OF METAL AND

STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION
1700’s – construction of buildings with
metal frames began in Great Britain.
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1800’s – hundreds of Iron Houses had been
sold to North American gold rush pioneers,
who used those for their treks toward
glory.
-The first steel-framed skyscraper in the
world had been built.
Home Insurance Building (Chicago, United States) –
the first steel-framed skyscraper in the world
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World War II Era – huge steel buildings
began to be used for storage within the oil
industry.

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Modern uses – in today’s age, steel and
metal building systems are used for nearly
every possible building application.

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PROPERTIES OF METALS
1. Ductility
2. Malleability
3. Plasticity
4. Tenacity
5. Toughness
6. Brittleness
7. Conductivity
8. Hardness
9. Strength
10.Ultimate Strength
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1. Ductility
Property of undergoing large plastic
deformation before actual failure
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2. Malleability
Ability to be permanently extended in all
directions, without rupture, when
subjected to a compressive force, as in
hammering or rolling.
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3. Plasticity
Property of metal which enables it to be
permanently deformed without rupture
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4. Tenacity
Property of metal to resist fracture
when under the action of a tensile or
pulling force
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5. Toughness
Property of resistance of a metal offers
to a breaking when a force is applied
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6. Brittleness
Opposite of toughness and is the
tendency of a metal to shutter on a
receiving blow
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7. Conductivity
Ability of metal to allow the passage of
either heat or electricity
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8. Hardness
Property of a metal to be able to cut,
scratch, or indent other metals, or to resist
filling, cutting, and wear by abrasion
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9. Strength
Ability to resist the application of a force
without rupture
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10. Ultimate Strength

It is the load required to fracture a one
square unit cross-section of the metal
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CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
1. FERROUS METALS
2.. NON-FERROUS METALS
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Ferrous Metals mostly contain Iron. They
have small amounts of other metals or
elements added, to give the required
properties. Ferrous Metals are magnetic and
give little resistance to corrosion.
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Pig Iron
Cast iron
Wrought Iron
Carbon Steel
Steel Alloys
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2. NON-FERROUS METALS
Non-Ferrous Metals do not contain Iron, are not
magnetic and are usually more resistant to
corrosion than ferrous metals.
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Aluminum
Copper
Tin
Zinc
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
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NON FERROUS METALS

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HOW METALS ARE MADE?

1. Discovery of Iron Ore Deposit –
exploration to find and define the extent,
location, and value of ore body.
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2. Mine Planning – identifies which ore
bodies are to be mined and in what
sequence in order to deliver the required
iron ore product at an appropriate cost.
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3. Mining – extraction of iron ore from the
ground by drilling and blasting.
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4. Transporting – the broken ore is loaded
for transport by excavators onto
overhauling trucks for its transportation to
the crushing and washing plant.
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5. Crushing and Washing of Ores - simple
crushing and screening and separating
various size fractions of the ore to the
process that upgrade the quality of iron
ore products.
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5. Crushing and Washing of Ores - simple
crushing and screening and separating
various size fractions of the ore to the
process that upgrade the quality of iron
ore products.
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6. Smelting
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7. Converting Wrought Iron to Pig Iron and
steel
JOSHUA P. FERRER
FERROUS METALS
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FERROUS METALS
IRON
Iron is by for the most important of the metals used in engineering construction. It
is available in abundance, but does not occur freely in nature. The ores of iron are
classed according to the iron mineral which is predominant.
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FERROUS METALS
IRON
The iron content of the main ores are as follows:
Magnetite (Fe3O4) — 70–75%,
Haematite (Fe2O3) — 70%,
Limonite (2Fe3O3.3H2O)— 60%, it is hydrated haematite,
Iron pyrite (FeS3) — 47%, and
Siderite (FeCO3) — 40%
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES
• Magnetite
• Red Hematite
• Limonite
• Siderite
• Clayey Siderite
• Black Band
• Iron Pyrites
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES

MAGNETITE (Fe3O4)
Iron content: 72%
Crystallization form: Cubical, Octahedron,
Dodecahedron
Color: Black with black streaks
Properties: Magnetic
Specific Gravity: 5.17 - 5.18
Hardness: 5.5 – 6.5
Location of deposits: Sweden and Norway
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES

RED HEMATITE (Fe2O3)
Iron content: 70% (can be reduced to 60% – 65%
by earthy matters)
Crystallization form: Rhombohedra
Color: Deep red to bluish grey with red streaks
Specific Gravity: 5.0-5.3
Hardness: 5.5-6.5
Location of deposits : U.S.A. & India
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES

LIMONITE
Iron content: 50% – 60%
Color: Light brown to black with yellowish black
streaks
Specific Gravity: 3.6 - 4
Hardness: 5 – 5.5
Location of deposits : Spain, Northampton shire,
Manbhum and Singhbhum, India
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES

SIDERITE
Iron content: 48%
Color: Yellowish brown to grey
Specific Gravity: 3.7 – 3.96
Hardness: 3.3 – 4.5
Location of deposits : Syria
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES

Clayey Siderite
a ferrous carbonate mixed with clay and sand. It is
found plenty in Strata containing coal, limestone, and
fire-clay. Its chief sources are Wales and Scotland. In
India, it is found in Raniganj Coalfield and Hazaribagh.
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES
Black Band
is a variety of iron stone, containing bituminous
matters, is found in abundance in Great Britain
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IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IRON PYRITE
Iron content: 45%
Crystallization form: Rhombohedra
Color: Golden-yellow with greenish or brownish black streaks
Specific Gravity: 4.8 – 5.2
Hardness: 6 – 6.5
Location of deposits : Manbhum and Singhbhum, India
E L L A M A E H A R T | D U L AY
PIG IRON
COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON

Carbon 3 – 4%
Silicon 0.5 – 3.5%
Manganese 0.5 – 2%
Sulfur 0.02 – 0.1%
Phosphorus 0.03 – 0.1%
MANUFACTURING OF PIG IRON

Dressing of Iron Ores
After the ores are brought out from mines, they

are crusher to about 50 mm cubes in ordinary
stone crushers and impurities are knocked off.

Calcination of ores
After dressing and separation of impurities of

gangue, the sized ores are calcined or roasted in
heaps with a view to driving off moisture,
carbonic acid, etc.

Smelting
The dressed and calcined ore is now mixed
with required quantity of flux and reduced in
a blast furnace (smelting furnace). By
melting the ore in contact with coke,
charcoal or anthracite in a blast furnace, the
iron is deoxidized and carburized from
contact with fuel. This molten iron is molded
and called pig iron.

Smelting
The dressed and calcined ore is now mixed with
required quantity of flux and reduced in a blast
furnace (smelting furnace). By melting the ore in
contact with coke, charcoal or anthracite in a blast
furnace, the iron is deoxidized and carburized from
contact with fuel. This molten iron is molded and
called pig iron.
E L L A M A E H A R T | D U L AY 1 2

Smelting
The dressed and calcined ore is now mixed
with required quantity of flux and reduced in
a blast furnace (smelting furnace). By
melting the ore in contact with coke,
charcoal or anthracite in a blast furnace, the
iron is deoxidized and carburized from
contact with fuel. This molten iron is molded
and called pig iron.
CLASSIFICATION OF PIG IRON
Bessemer Pig
It is a distinct variety of pig iron made from hematite ores..
Foundry Pig (Grey Pig)

Suitable for the use of the iron founder contains most
graphite carbon.
Forge Pig (White Pig)

Is produced, when the temperature of the furnace is low or
fuel supplied is inadequate and there is much Sulphur
either in ore or in the fuel.
Mottled Pig
Which is in between grey pig and white pig, has a mottled
appearance on fracture.
PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON
• It is hard and brittle

• It cannot be magnetized
• It melts easily at 1200⁰C
PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON

• It has high compressive
strength but it is weak in
tension
• It does not rust
• It cannot be riveted or
welded
USES OF PIG IRON
Door Bracket
USES OF PIG IRON
Base Plate
USES OF PIG IRON
Columns
J E S M I N E T H E N G T H E N G | Z I TA
CAST IRON
a hard, relatively brittle alloy of iron and carbon
that can be readily cast in a mold and contains a
higher proportion of carbon than steel
METALS COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON
Element Content (%)

Carbon, C 1.7-4.5
Silicon, Si 0.5-3
Manganese, Mn Less than 2%
Sulfur, S Limited to max of 0.15%
Phosphorus, P Approximately 0.6%

MANUFACTURING OF CAST IRON

MANUFACTURING OF CAST IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

GREY CAST IRON
Is made from foundry pigs. This is grey in color with large
grains, softer than white cast iron and presents to great
extent the property of a pure iron. This class of cast iron
has low melting point (1200°C) and good machinability.
WHITE CAST IRON

Is made from foundry pigs. This is grey in color with large
grains, softer than white cast iron and presents to great
extent the property of a pure iron. This class of cast iron
has low melting point (1200°C) and good machinability.
MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Is obtained by partial removal of carbon, silicon, Sulphur,
and manganese from cast iron at a temperature below
it’s melting point by heating it with a solid oxidant and
thus strength and softness is achieved. Malleable Cast
Iron possess strength, ductility and toughness

MOTTLED CAST IRON
Is produced by cementation process, in which cast iron
with powdered hematite is heated to redness in an
oven. This helps in increasing toughness of cast iron. It
mixture of grey and white varieties of cast iron.
CHILLED CAST IRON

Chilling is the process of making the exterior portion of
the cast iron hard and interior portion soft. Hence , the
outer portion is white cast iron, while the interior
portion is grey cast iron. It gives good wearing surface
and is thus, used for making railway wheels.
TOUGHENED CAST IRON

Is produced by melting cast iron with one-fourth to one-
seventh of its weight of wrought iron scraps.
E R I C K A | G AT C H A L I A N
METHODS OF CASTING
SAND CASTING
the most common casting procedure
involves pouring molten metal into a
cavity in a mass of packed sand.
METHODS OF CASTING
HOLLOW CASTING
is used for making columns and piles. For
hollow casting of the objects a solid core is
placed where the hollow is to be maintained.
After casting the core and mold are taken out.
Cast material becomes hollow due to the core.
METHODS OF CASTING
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
many blow holes are left in ordinary casting
because of little control over temperature
and the sand mold. The problem is
overcome by centrifugal casting.
METHODS OF CASTING
DIE CASTING
is cheap for commercial production.
Casting is done under pressure, which
may be as high as 140 MN/mm2, into a
split die cavity. Since the die is water
cooled, the molten metal solidifies
quickly, permitting early removal of the
casting.
PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON

• Its structure is coarse, crystalline and fibrous.
• It is brittle and cannot absorb shock.
• It cannot be magnetized.
• It does not rust easily.
• It has low melting point about 1200 ᵒC.
PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON
• Two pieces cannot be joined by riveting

and welding.
• It shrinks on cooling.
• Specific gravity is 7.5
• Its compressive strength is 700N/mm² and
tensile strength is 150N/mm².
USES OF CAST IRON

• Columns and column bases may be made
with it.
USES OF CAST IRON

• Rail chairs and carriage wheels are made with
it.
USES OF CAST IRON

• Many agricultural implements are also made
using cast iron.
USES OF CAST IRON

• It is used as basic material for manufacturing
wrought iron and mild steel.
USES OF CAST IRON

• It is used for making rainwater and sanitary
pipes, sanitary fittings and manhole covers.
USES OF CAST IRON

• It is used for making railings and spiral
stairs.
USES OF CAST IRON

• Ornamental castings like brackets, gates,
lamp post and etc.
USES OF CAST IRON

• Fire gratings, pump covers and covers for
motors are made with cast iron.
DEFECTS
Checks, segregation, blow holes and coarse grain
originate during the cooling of the castings.
Irons with High Sulphur content are liable to have

small cracks running transverse to longitudinal axis,
called checks, due to greater shrinkage and lack of
strength.
DEFECTS
Segregation is pronounced in high
phosphorus iron. Carbon and silicon
sometimes segregate in such manner that
interior portions of the metal are white and
exterior parts are grey rendering it difficult
to machine the casting.
DEFECTS
Blow holes are caused due to improper
venting of the mold or due to a high
proportion of Sulphur. A coarse or open
grain in the iron is caused by too slow
cooling, or due it may be due to a very
high Phosphorus content.
DEFECTS
Spongy spots (the exaggerated forms of open
grains) and cold shuts — faults planes in the metal
produced by the solidification of part of the
casting before the remaining molten metal was
run into place — result from lack of fluidity in the
iron or from improper grating
V I A M A R I C E | M A M A C L AY
WROUGHT IRON
• Is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content

• It is a semi-fused mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions
WROUGHT IRON
• It was hammered, rolled or otherwise worked while hot

enough to expel molten slag
• It is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily
welded.
Wrought iron is still available as recycled iron

METALS COMPOSITION OF WROUGHT IRON
Element Content (%)

Iron, Fe 99-99.8
Carbon, C 0.05-0.25
Phosphorus, P 0.05-0.2
Silicon, Si 0.02-0.2
Sulfur, S 0.02-0.1
Manganese, Mn 0.01-0.1
METALS MANUFACTURING OF WROUGHT IRON
REFINING
or exposure when fused to a strong current of air which removes part of the carbon.
PUDDLING
by which the molten metal is still further exposed to a blast of air and oxidizing substances in a reverberatory
furnace. The remainder of the carbon is thus removed, and clotty lumps or "puddle halls" of pure iron appear.
SHINGLING
or hammering of these puddle balls so as to squeeze out the cinder and form them into "blooms".
ROLLING
or passing the blooms while red hot between grooved rollers which convert them into puddled bars.
PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT IRON

Ultimate Crushing Strength – 200 MPa
Ultimate Tensile Strength – 400 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity – 1.86 x 10^5 MPa
Melting Point – 1500 °C
Specific Gravity – 7.80
Alloying Elements – Nickel, Copper and Molybdenum
USES OF WROUGHT IRON

Swords, cutlery, chisels, axes and other
edged tools as well as springs and files

rivets, nails, wire, chains, rails, railway
couplings, water and steam pipes, nuts,
bolts, horseshoes, handrails, wagon tires,
straps for timber roof trusses, and
ornamental ironwork

ornamental ironwork

ornamental ironwork

Guard rails, garden furniture and gates

Wrought iron can be riveted to make things
like beams, trusses, and girders.
DEFECTS
• Red Short or hot short - if it contains
sulfur in excess quantity
• Cold short iron also known as cold
shear/ colshire – if it contains excessive
phosphorus
DEFECTS
• Blisters - due to reaction of oxide of
iron with carbon in the slag
J E S S S A | B ATA C
STEEL
-most suitable material among metallic material

J E S S A | B ATA C
STEEL
-can be obtained a desired combination of hardness,
ductility and strength by controlling its:
• carbon content
• alloying elements
• heat treatment
J E S S A | B ATA C
METALS STEEL CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
CARBON CONTENT
Type of Steel Definition Carbon Content (%)
Dead Mild Steel the property of good ductility and the < 0.15
ability to be easily formed
Mild Steel less strong but cheap and easy to 0.15-0.3

shape
Medium Carbon Steel balances ductility and strength and has 0.3-0.8
good wear resistance
High Carbon Steel or Hard strong, used for springs and high 0.08-1.5
Steel strength wire . (> 1 also called cast steel or tool
steel)
J E S S A | B ATA C
MANUFACTURING METHODS
Bessemer Process (1856)
- most prominent present-day steel making process
-the pig iron is first melted in cupola furnace and sent to
Bessemer converter
-blast of air is given to oxidize the carbon and manganese is
added to the converter and hot air is blasted once again
-then the molten material is poured into molds to form ingots.
J E S S A | B ATA C
Cementation Process
-pig iron is first completely decarbonized into almost pure
wrought iron
-then converted into steel by adding the required percentage
of carbon
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Crucible Process
-involves meting of blister steel or bar of iron in fire clay
crucibles
-cast steel so obtained is very hard and is used for making
surgical equipment
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MANUFACTURING
METHODS
Open Hearth Process
Also known as Siemen's-martin
process, the steel produced is
more homogenous than by
Bessemer
J E S S A | B ATA C
MANUFACTURING
METHODS
Electric Smelting Process
-this process is costly but no
ash or smoke is produced
J E S S A | B ATA C
Duplex Process
-is a combination of Acid Bessemer process and Basic Open
Hearth Process.
J E S S A | B ATA C
Lintz and Donawitz (L.D. Process)
-is the modification of the Bessemer Process
in which there is no control over temperature
-by this method steel can be made in hardly
25 minutes
J E S S A | B ATA C
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
BLISTER STEEL
-It is obtained by Cementation Process.
-It contains fissures and cavities.
-It cannot be forged, but can be welded.
-Steel formed by roasting bar- iron in contact with
carbon in a cementing furnace.
J E S S A | B ATA C
BLISTER STEEL
-During the reheating process, carbon monoxide
gas was formed internally at the nonmetallic
inclusions. It is so called from its blistered
appearance.
-To improve the quality, it is subjected to two
subsequent processes, which convert it into shear-
steel and cast- steel
J E S S A | B ATA C
SPRING STEEL
-It is obtained by heating blister steel to redness,
rolling and hammering.
-It may be used for marking alloy.
-Used prominently in automotive and industrial
suspension applications.
J E S S A | B ATA C
SPRING STEEL
-These steels are generally low-alloy manganese,
medium-carbon steel or high-carbon steel with a
very high yield strength.
-This allows objects made of spring steel to return
to their original shape despite significant deflection
or twisting.
J E S S A | B ATA C
SPRING STEEL
-It is also commonly used in the manufacture of
metal swords for stage combat due to its resistance
to bending, snapping or shattering
J E S S A | B ATA C
SHEAR STEEL
-It is produced by placing short length of blister
steel bars at welding heat, sprinkled with sand and
borax.
-It is used for making knives, shears, cutting tools,
etc.
J E S S A | B ATA C
SHEAR STEEL
-A blister-steel, heated, rolled, and tilted to
improve the quality. Several bars are welded
together and drawn out.
-Shear-steel is named from its applicability to the
manufacture of cutting instruments, shears, knives,
scythes, etc.
J E S S A | B ATA C
SHEAR STEEL
-The bar is sometimes cut, reheated, and again

tilted. This may be repeated. The terms single
shear and double shear indicate the extent to
which the process is carried.
J E S S A | B ATA C
CAST IRON
-Is the strongest and most uniform, compact and
homogenous steel.
-Prepared from blister and shear steal by reheating
these at low temperature and hammering into
bars.
-This steel is used for making instruments of very
high grade.
J E S S A | B ATA C
BESSEMER STEEL
-It is obtained from Bessemer converter.
-It is used for making boiler plates , common tools,
rails, axel, railway carriage wheel tires, cutlery, etc.
-It was made possible by Henry Bessemer in 1855,
when he obtained British patents for a pneumatic
steelmaking process.
J E S S A | B ATA C
MILD STEEL
-It is obtained by Open Heart Process and Siemens
Heart Process.
-It is chiefly use in structural constructions.
-It is a type of carbon steel with a low amount of
carbon – it is actually also known as “low carbon
steel.”
J E S S A | B ATA C
MILD STEEL
-Mild steel is not an alloy steel and therefore does

not contain large amounts of other elements
besides iron.
- it contains from .15 to .3 percent of carbon.
J E S S A | B ATA C
WHITWORTH COMPRESSED STEEL
-It is produced by expelling gasses and closing up
cavities by keeping molten steels under a pressure
of 9 kg/mm2
-It is used for boilers, machine parts, guns, boring
tools, rivets, etc.
J E S S A | B ATA C
WHITWORTH COMPRESSED STEEL
-It was made by Sir Joseph Whitworth.
Whitworth Fluid
-Compressed Steel opened the new age in the art
of making shotgun barrels.
S H E E N A M A R I E | S A LVA D O R
STEEL ALLOYS
What is an alloy?
STEEL ALLOYS
Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in

total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its
mechanical properties.
METALS STEEL ALLOYS
S. No. ALLOY STEEL COMPOSITION PROPERTIES USES
Railway points and

Hard, tough and strong crossings
1 Manganese Manganese 12-15% Difficult to machine Rock cutting machine jaws
Steel High electric resistance Car wheels
Non-magnetic Dredger bucket
Low coefficient of expansion Rollers
Heavy road bearing rails
METALS MANGANESE STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Manufacturing of stainless
steel
Blades
Increases strength, hardness Chisels
2 Chrome Steel Chromium 2% and heat resistance Cutlery
Increases tensile strength Razor
Bearing balls
Rollers
Crushing Machines
Permanent Magnets
METALS CHROME STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Armor of war vessels
Naval purposes
Guns
More elastic Shafts
3 Nickel Steel Nickel 3.5 % Higher tensile strength Axles
Lesser brittle than mild steel Bearing
Improved hardness and Crankshafts
ductility Connecting Rods
Boiler Plates
Automobile and Aircraft
Industries
METALS NICKEL STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Precision works
4 Invar Nickel 30-40% Low coefficient of thermal Delicate instruments
Carbon 0.5% expansion (Surveying and Scientific
Instruments)
METALS INVAR
METALS CHROME NICKEL STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Strong Gear axles
Hard Shafts
5 Chrome nickel steel Chromium 18% Tough Armor Plating
Nickel 10% Elastic Rock Cutting Machinery
Ductile
METALS CHROME NICKEL STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Cutting tools
6 Tungsten steel Tungsten 14- 20% High cutting hardness Magnets
Resistance to abrasion Small generators
Electrical instruments
METALS TUNGSTEN STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS
7 Chrome tungsten steel Carbon 18% Cutting power at a high Cutting tools of lather
High Speed Steel speed and other machines
Hardness at high
temperature
Very hard
METALS CHROME TUNGSTEN STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

8 Cobalt steel Cobalt 35% Heat resistant Permanent magnets
Abrasion resistant
High heat resistance
METALS COBALT STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

9 Silicon Steel Silicon 1-2% Imparts hardness and strength Electrical materials
METALS SILICON STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

10 Titanium Steel Very hard tensile strength Surgical Instruments
METALS TITANIUM STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

High tensile and yield strength Engine frames
11 Vanadium Steel Vanadium 0.1-2% Shock resisting property Crank
Resistance to softening at high Shafts
temperatures Springs
Axles
METALS VANADIUM STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

12 Molybdenum Molybdenum 0.2-0.3% Maintains tensile strength at Automobile and
Steel high temperatures aircraft industry
Hardening property Gears
Cutting property Axles
METALS MOLYBDENUM STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Rail tires
13 Carbon Steel Carbon 2-3% Hard Guns
Elastic Armor plates
Boiler
Sheep plates
METALS CARBON STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

14 Clad Steel Resist temperature
Corrosion
METALS CLAD STEEL
METALS CLAD STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Chromium <14 % Gears
Carbon < 0.4% Very hard and tough Shafts
15 Stainless Steel Nickel High elastic and ultimate Springs
Tungsten strength Ball bearing
Copper Acid and rust proof Surgical Instruments
METALS STAINLESS STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Cranes
16 High Strength Steel Carbon 0.05-0.25% Corrosion resistant Shovels
Manganese 2% Scrapers
Structural Steel Section
METALS HIGH STRENGTH STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

Carbon 0.5-1% Shock Resistant
Chromium 1.5% Resistant against Springs
17 Spring Steel Silicon 2% corrosion, fatigue and Shock absorber
Manganese 1% temperature
Vanadium 0.2%
METALS SPRING STEEL
METALS STEEL ALLOYS

18 Free Cutting Steel Sulphur 0.08-0.3% Improves machinability Bolts
Carbon 0.08-0.45% Nuts
Silicon 0.15-0.25 % Certain automobile
Phosphorus 0.05-0.16% parts and instruments
METALS FREE CUTTING STEEL
IMPORTANT REASONS FOR ALLOY ADDITION
1. To increase the hardenability of steel. The steel in this group

are usually heat treated by quenching and tempering, for it is
only this way that the added expanse of the alloys can be
justified through the better combination of properties that is
obtained.
2. To strengthen the steel when it is to be used without special

heat treatment. The steels that fall in this category are
designed specifically for constructional purposes.
3. To confer some special property such as machinability,

corrosion resistance wear resistance, etc.
TA N YA M A E | G A R C I A
METALS TYPES OF STEEL
S. No. TYPES OF STEEL PROPERTIES USES

Ductile, malleable Rolled sections
Mild Steel Tougher and more elastic than wrought iron Reinforcing bars
1 (Low Carbon Steel) Can be forged and welded Roof coverings
(Soft Steel) Difficult to temper and harden Sheet piles
Can rust quickly Railway tracks
Can be permanently magnetized

Tougher than Mild Steel
More elastic than Mild Steel
2 High Carbon Steel Can be forged with difficulty Reinforcing cement concrete and pre-
(Hard Steel) Can be welded with difficulty stressed concrete members
Can take shocks and vibrations Making tools and machine parts
and is used for making tools and
machine parts

3 High Tensile Steel is essentially a medium carbon Pre-stressed concrete
(High strength steel) steel construction
METALS TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL
S. No. TYPES OF STEEL MAXIMUM COMPRESSIVE MAXIMUM TENSILE

STRENGTH STRENGTH
1 Mild Steel 800-1200 N/mm2 600-800 N/mm2
2 High Carbon Steel 1350 N/mm2 1400-2000 N/mm2
3 High Tensile Steel --------------------- 2000 N/mm2

(min elongation of 10%)
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Chemical Composition
The presence of carbon in steel gives high degree of hardness
and strength. The addition of carbon to iron decreases the
malleability and ductility of the metal, and reduces its
permeability to magnetic forces.
The elastic limit and the ultimate strength of steel increase with
carbon content but at a lower rate. The compressive strength of
steel increases directly with carbon content up to 1.0 %.
The shear strength of steel also increases with the carbon

content. The ratio of shear strength to the tensile strength is
0.80 for medium and low carbon steels and 0.60 for high
carbon steels. The modulus of elasticity is nearly same for
tension and compression and is practically independent of the
carbon content.
The ductility of steel decreases markedly as the carbon

content increases. The resistance of steel to heavy shocks or
blows decreases with increase of carbon content.
EFFECTS OF PRINCIPAL IMPURITIES ON STEEL
Silicon
often added to molten metal to remove oxygen and diminish blow
holes.
Phosphorus
is considered to promote enlargement of the grains and thus
produce brittleness.
Sulphur
it is readily combines with iron to form iron sulfide (FeS) which, when
present in iron or steel, has a tendency to segregate and form brittle
networks at the grain boundaries.
Manganese
has strong affinity for oxygen and sulphur and acts as a cleanser
of the molten metal by withdrawing much of the undesirable
impurities into the slag.
Copper
increases resistance to corrosion when present in small
percentage.
Arsenic
has a tendency to raise the strength and brittleness.
Non-metallic Impurities
are mechanically suspended in the metal and are often called slag
inclusions causing brittleness.
HEAT TREATMENT
The object of heat treatment is to develop desired
properties of steel. The properties of steel can be
controlled and changed as well by various heat treatments.
A steel of given composition may be made soft, ductile and
tough by one heat treatment, and the same steel may be
made relatively hard and strong by another.
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment affects the nature, amount, and
character of the metallographic properties. Heat
treatment influences the solubility relations of the
constituent, changes the crystallization either with
respect to form or degree of aggregation and
introduces or relieves internal stresses in the metal.
HEAT TREATMENT
Some of the principle purposes of heat treatment are as follows:
- To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.
- To relieve internal stresses and strains.
- To refine grain.
- To normalize steel after heat treatment.
RY E N | T I M P U G
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
FORGING
it is process when steel is made soft by
heating, it is forged to give the desired shape
by hammering
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
WELDING
it may be done by hammering two pieces
jointly, when white hot.
1 2
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
HARDENING
it may be done by plunging red hot steel into
a bath of cold water.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
TEMPERING
it is adopted to bring toughness of the
hardened steel.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
ANNEALING
it is the process in which the hardened steel
is brought to red hot condition and then
cooled gradually inside the furnace.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
NORMALIZING
it is similar to annealing, but the rate of
cooling is made slow.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
SOFTENING
it is the process of removing the internal
strain developed in steel during fabrication.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
CASE HARDENING OR CARBUNIZING
it is done to convert the exterior surface of
wrought iron into steel.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
QUENCHING
it is a process of cooling a metal at a rapid
rate.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
PATENTING
rendering high carbon steel wires ductile for
drawing, these are heated above the critical
range and cooled in molten salt or lead.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
AUSTEMPERING
it is the process in which steel is rendered shock-
resisting. Steel is heated above the critical range of
746 degree Celsius and is cooled in a bath molten salt
or lead at 316 degree Celsius.
TECHNIQUES OF HEAT
TREATMENT IN STEEL
MARTEMPERING
it is a process by which steel is made hard,
tough, ductile internal stress and distortion
are reduced.
RUSTING AND CORROSION

When steel is exposed to atmosphere, it is
subjected to action of atmospheric agencies.
The humid air causes the rusting of steel (the
formation of oxides on the surface of steel),
also the atmospheric conditions along with
rain produces oxidation and corrosion.
RUSTING AND CORROSION

Of the various theories of corrosion, the acid theory is
applicable to the corrosion of iron. According to this
theory rusting is caused by action of oxygen, carbon
dioxide and moisture converting the iron to ferrous
bicarbonate. Further, the ferrous bicarbonate on
oxidation changes to ferric bicarbonate and
subsequently to hydrated ferric oxide.
PREVALENT METHODS TO
SAFEGUARD IRON
AND STEEL FROM RUSTING
AND CORROSION
GALVANIZING
is the process by which is coated with a thin
film of zinc, so that the iron surface does not
come in contact with air and water.
SAFEGUARD IRON
AND CORROSION
TIN PLATING
is done to cover the surface of iron with a
thin film of tin instead of zinc.
SAFEGUARD IRON
AND CORROSION
ENAMELING
is achieved by cleaning the iron piece properly and by
melting a flux on the surface in muffle furnace and
then coating it with a second layer of more fusible
glaze.
SAFEGUARD IRON
AND CORROSION
PAINTING
is one of the effective methods for preservation
of iron and steel. It consists in applying a coat of
red lead and then applying a coat of enamel or
aluminum paint.
SAFEGUARD IRON
AND CORROSION
COAL TARRING
coal tar laid hot on the iron surface protects it
from atmospheric actions. Coal tarring is
usually done on iron used in substructure.
REINFORCING STEEL BARS

Concrete being extremely weak in tension requires
reinforcement, which is in variably steel. Steel reinforcement
is available in the form of bars of specific diameters with
different chemical composition, e.g., mild steel and high
tensile steel and surface characteristics, plain or deformed.
Good steel should not have carbon content of more than
0.25%, sulphur content of more than 0.05% and phosphorus
content of more than 0.05%.
HIGH YIELD STRENGTH DEFORMED (HYSD)
have lugs, ribs, or deformations on the surface

which inhibit longitudinal movement of the bar
relative to the surrounding concrete. Thus, the
deformed surface ensures better bond between
reinforcement and concrete.
THERMO-MECHANICALLY TREATED (TMT)
bars are extra high strength reinforcing bars, which

eliminate any form of cold twisting. In this process, the
steel bars receive a short intensive cooling as they pass
through a water cooling system after the last rolling mill
stand.
REBAR MARKING
M AY N A R D C E D R I C K | M E S I N A
MARKET FORMS OF ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
Angle Section
Angle Sections may be of equal legs or unequal legs. An
angle bar is also known as an “L-bracket” or an “angle
iron,” is a metal bracket in the form of a right angle.
Angle Section
It is made of galvanized steel and often used in masonry
or applied to different surfaces through welding or
drilling. Angle sections are extensively used in structural
steel work especially in the construction of steel roof
trusses and filler joist floor.
Channel Section
Channel Sections consist of a web with two equal
flanges. Top and bottom plates of a channel section are
named as flanges ang the vertical plate which connects
the flanges is named as web. Channel sections are widely
used as structural member in steel-framed structures.
Corrugated sheets
These are formed by passing steel sheets through
grooves. These grooves bend and press steel sheets and
corrugations are formed on the sheets. These corrugated
sheets are usually galvanized and they are referred to as
galvanized iron sheets or GI sheets. These sheets are
widely used for roofing covering.
Expanded metal
This form of steel is available in different shapes and
sizes. It is prepared from sheets of mild steel, which are
machine cut and drawn out or expanded. Expanded
metal is widely used for reinforcing concrete in
foundations, roads, floors, bridges, etc. It is also used as
lathing material and for partitions.
Flat bars
Flat bar is a steel with a rectangle section. Steel flat bars
are used primarily by fabrication customers and find
many applications in structures and frames. They are
easy to cut and drill, which is why they are particularly
suited to welding . It is either used as hot-rolled finished
product or billet cut from plate. Flat bars are used in
frames, braces and with gate linings.
I-beam (S-section)
I-beam is a type of beam often used in trusses in building . I
beam is generally manufactured from structural steels with hot
and cold rolling or welding processes. Top and bottom plates of
an I-beam are named as flanges and the vertical plate which
connects the flanges is named web.
I-beam (S-section)
Different dimensions of I beam exist in the market and can be
supplied by the beam suppliers. Due to its shape, I beam as high
moment of inertia and stiffness which makes it resistant to
bending moments. The web provides resistance against shear
forces. These beams are not resistant to torsional (twisting) and
they shall not used the cases where torsion is dominant.
Wide flange (W-section)

The wide flanged I beam (W shape) is a structural steel
shape with I (or H) form. Top and bottom plates of a I
beam are named as flanges and vertical plate which
connects the flanges is named as web. In wide flange I
beams, flanges are nearly parallel to each other.
Round bars
Round bars are solid bars with round or circular cross
section. They are generally produced from stainless,
carbon steel, alloy and case hardening steel aluminum.
Round bars are generally needed for the production of
axles, pin, shaft, etc. They are also used as fastener
application due to its strength and shape.
Square Bar
Rectangular bars (including square bar) are solid bars (or
flats) with rectangle cross section. They generally
produced by stainless steel, carbon steel, alloy steel and
aluminum.
Square Bar
Square Bars and are made from very high quality raw
material which ensures high durability at its used end.
These steel square are widely finds its applications in
various commercial sectors.
Tee Section
also known as T beam or T bar, it is a structural beam
with a T-shaped cross section. The materials of Tee
sections are generally mild steel, aluminum and
stainless steel. Manufacturing methods of T beams are
hot rolling, extrusion and plate welding. T section used
for the construction of steel built up sections, chimneys,
steel bridges etc.
Bull Headed Rails

This type of rail consists of three parts, (a) The Head (b)
The Web and (c) The Foot. These rails were made of
steel.
Bull Headed Rails

The head is of larger than foot and the foot is designed
only to hold up properly the wooden keys with which rails
are secured. Thus, the foot is designed only to furnish
necessary strength and stiffness to rails. Two vast iron chair
are required per each sleeper when these are adopted.
Their weight ranges from 85lb to 95lb and their length is
up to 60 ft.
Flat Footed Rails

These rails were first off all invented by Charles Vignoles
in 1836 and hence these rails are called vignoles rails. It
consist of three parts: (a) The Head (b) The Web and (c)
The Foot. The Foot is spread out to form a base. This
form of rail has become so much popular that 90% of
railway tracks in the world are laid with this form of rails.
Flat footed rails have the following advantages:

• They do not need any chair and can be directed spiked or
keyed to the sleepers. Thus they are economical
• They are much stiffer both vertically and laterally. The
lateral stiffness is important for curves.

• They are less liable to develop kinks and maintain a more
regular top surface than bull headed rails.
• They are cheaper than bull headed rails.

• The loads from wheels of trains are distributed over larger
number of sleepers and hence larger area which results in
greater track stability, longer life of rails and sleepers,
reduced maintenance, costs, less rail failure and few
interruptions to traffic.
Grooved rail
Where a rail is laid in a Road surface (pavement) or
within grassed surfaces, there has to be accommodation
for the flange. This is provided by slot called the flange
way. The rail is then known as grooved rail, or girder rail.
The flange way has the railhead on one side and the
guard on the other. The guard carries no weight, but may
act as a checkrail.
MARICAR PUNO
NON-FERROUS METALS
MARICAR | PUNO
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOY
Aluminum is available in abundance on the surface of the earth in

form of bauxite, kaolin, kryolite and corundum.
MARICAR | PUNO
MARICAR | PUNO
STEPS IN EXTRACTING ALUMINUM
• Bauxite is roasted, ground and heated with

sodium hydrate (NaH).
• It is filtered.
• It is dissolved in fused cryolite, a double fluoride
of aluminum and sodium.
MARICAR | PUNO
STEPS IN EXTRACTING ALUMINUM
• The solution is placed in an electric furnace and

aluminum is separated by electrolysis.
• Aluminum sections are manufactured by casting
or by extrusion or meet the requirements
MARICAR | PUNO
MARICAR | PUNO
MARICAR | PUNO
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM
• It is silvery white with a bluish tinge.
• Its freshly broken surface exhibits a bright luster.
• It is a light metal , with a specific gravity of 2.7 only.
• It is malleable and ductile.
• It is non- magnetic.
MARICAR | PUNO
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM
• It is highly resistant to corrosion and chemical action.
• It is good conductor of electricity.
• It melts at 600°C.
• Its tensile strength is 270 N/mm².
• Its strength- weight ratio is very favorable for
construction.
MARICAR | PUNO
ADVANTAGES OF ALUMINUM
AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Aluminum is used extensively in construction for

making doors and windows, roofing sheets, ladders
and as electrical conductor. It is widely applied
because it has the following advantages:
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
ADVANTAGES OF USING ALUMINUM AS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
ADVANTAGES DESCRIPTION
Airtightness Aluminum extrusions can be very precise. Hence , airtight window frames can be
made easily.
Ease in fabrication and essembly As aluminum is comparatively soft and ductile , fabrication is easy. It is easy to cut
and essemble on-site too.
High corrosion resistance Because of its high resistance to corrosion, it can be used even on seashores.
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
Resistance to insect attack There is no danger of attack from white ants and borers, as in the case of wood.
Economy in maintenance It does not require painting , so the cost of maintenance is low.
Good noise control Aluminum is an excellent reflector of electromagnetic and sound waves. Hence,
aluminum windows are preferable to windows made from any other materials.
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
High reflectivity Aluminum sheets absorb less radiant heat. Hence, aluminum is good material for
roofing and sidings of workshop sheds.
High strength-weight ratio This property helps aluminum alloys to be used in making automotive and aero
plane bodies. They are used for making ladders too.
Ease in transport Considerable cost is saved in transporting aluminum products , as it is a light

material.
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
High conductivity in electricity Aluminum wires are used for high-voltage distribution of electricity. However it is
not used for wiring in homes, as it tends to oxide when in contact with the
atmosphere, when the voltage is low.
Aesthetic appearance It has an attractive appearance and can be powder coated to get various shades.
High scrap value Scrap value of aluminum is high.

MARICAR | PUNO
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Aluminum is soft and hence is rarely used in its
pure form. It is used by alloying with other
metals. Popular varieties of aluminum alloys
are discussed :
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
DURALUMIN
It is an important alloy of aluminum. Its constituents

are:
Aluminum 94%
Copper 4%
Magnesium, Manganese, Iron, 0.5% each

and Silicon
This alloy is very strong. It is used in automobiles and

aircraft, as its strength is as high as that of steel,
coupled with low weight.
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
ALDURAL
It is duralumin coated with thin aluminum. The

coating prevents corrosion of the due to salt
water.
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
ALUMINUM BRONZE
It is an alloy of copper (90%-78%) and aluminum (10%-22%). It is hard and does

not rust. It is used for grill works in building and in marine conditions, as it has
high resistance to corrosion.
MARICAR | PUNO
METALS
Y-ALLOY
It consist of aluminum with copper(4%), nickel(2%) and magnesium(1.5%). It is a good

conductor of heat and maintains strength at high temperature also. It is used for
cylinder head, gear boxes, engine piston, etc..
MARICAR | PUNO
USES OF ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOY

For making doors and windows
MARICAR | PUNO
As roofing sheets and for partitioning

MARICAR | PUNO

Wires used as electrical conductor
MARICAR | PUNO

For making grills
MARICAR | PUNO
For making ladders

MARICAR | PUNO
ALUMINUM IS ALSO USED FOR:
Manufactured of automobile and aircraft bodies

MARICAR | PUNO
ALUMINUM IS ALSO USED FOR:
For making cylinder heads, gear boxes, and engine

pistons.
L A U R H E A | PA M I N T U A N
COPPER AND ITS ALLOY
WHAT IS ORE?
COPPER AND ITS ALLOY
copper is extracted from the following ores:.

Cuprite (Cu2O) 88% Copper

Copper Glance (Cu2S) 80% Copper

Malachite (CuCO3+Cu(OH)2) 56% Copper

Copper Pyrites (CuFeS2) 34.5% Copper

EXTRACTION OF COPPER
• Roasting
• Smelting
• Converting
• Electric Refining
PROPERTIES OF COPPER
● It is a bright, shining metal, reddish in
color.
● On exposure to air, its become greenish
color.
● It is malleable and ductile, and can be
work in cold and hot states.
● It is not affected by water at any
temperature.
● It is good conductor of hear and
electricity.
● Its melting temperature is 1083° C.
● Its specific gravity is 8.9.
● It can be alloyed with other metal.
● By suitable treatment it can be made
strong and tough.
USES OF COPPER
● Copper wires are used as electric
cables.
USES OF COPPER
● Copper straps are best lighting
conductors
USES OF COPPER
● Copper straps are used as dowels in
stone masonry and making construction
joints in RCC Structures.
USES OF COPPER
● It is used in making alloys like brass
and bronze.
ALLOYS OF COPPER
Brass
it is an alloy of copper (60-90%) and zinc
(10-40%). There are many varities of
brass woth varying amounts of copper
and zinc.
ALLOYS OF COPPER
Bronze
It is an alloy of copper and tin. Depending
upon the percentage of copper.
ALLOYS OF COPPER
Types of bronze manufactured:
A. Bell Metal 82% copper.
B. Gun Metal 88% copper.
C. Phosphorus Bronze 89% copper.
ALLOYS OF COPPER
Bronze is not affected by sea water.

Hence, it is use for various parts in ships,
shaft, axles. It was used for casting
cannons in middle ages.
ALLOYS OF COPPER
German Silver
Its is an alloy of copper (50-80%), zinc
(10-30%), and nickel (20-30%).
K I M B E R LY | G A L L E G O
ZINC
German Chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited

with discovering pure Zinc in 1746 in metallic form.
ZINC
Zinc is the 4th most common metal in use and has been
used for over 2500 years.
ZINC
Principal ore’s of Zinc are Calamine(ZnCo3) and Zinc

Blende(ZnS).Zinc blende contains about 50% zinc, while
Zinc calamine contains about 65% zinc.
MANUFACTURING OF ZINC
Zinc ore is heated in an electric furnace to remove all
volatile materials . The ore is then mixed with coke or
coal and placed in a vertical retort furnace . The
temperature is raise to white heat(1100C).
MANUFACTURING OF ZINC
At this stage ,Zinc is liberated in the form of vapor,
which is condensed in the form of liquid . The liquid
form of zinc is then molded in the form of slabs or
ingots.
PROPERTIES OF ZINC
• It is a bluish-white metal
• It is brittle at ordinary temperature
• Its melting point is 419C .When heated
to about 900C it burns with a greenish-
white flame.
PROPERTIES OF ZINC
• It is not affected by dry air and pure
water.
• It can be rolled into sheets and drawn
into mines at 100- 150 C.
PROPERTIES OF ZINC
• It is destroyed by acid, hit water, sea salt
,lime and other calcareous substances.
• Its specific gravity is 7.15
USES OF ZINC
USES OF ZINC
ALLOYS OF ZINC
With copper, Zinc is used to make brass
and German silver.
LEAD
The ore from which lead is usually extracted is known as GALENA

or also called Lead glance . It contains about 86% lead .Lead has
been mined for more than 6000 yrs.
STEPS IN EXTRACTION OF LEAD

1 .The ore is roasted to reduced sulphur content.
2. After adding coke ,the mixture is smelted in a blast
furnace to get a mass known as LEAD BULLION.
3. Lead bullion is re-melted in a reverberator furnace
and pure lead is obtained.
PROPERTIES OF LEAD
• It is a lustrous metal having bluish-grey
color.
• It is a soft metal which can be cut by a
knife.
PROPERTIES OF LEAD
• It is malleable and hence can be rolled
into thin sheets.
• Its specific gravity is 11.36.
PROPERTIES OF LEAD
• It melts at 326 C
• It resists atmospheric corrosion.
• It dissolve readily in dilute nitric acid.
• It turns dark in color in the presence of
moist air.
USES OF LEAD
 ROMANS
USES OF LEAD
 MEDIEVAL TIMES
USES OF LEAD
 RECENT TIMES
USES OF LEAD
 RECENT TIMES
USES OF LEAD
 RECENT TIMES
ALLAN JR. | QUIAMBAO
NICKEL
is a chemical element with symbol Ni. It is a silvery-white

lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge.
STEPS IN EXTRACTION OF NICKEL

PROPERTIES OF NICKEL
Nickel is a greyish-white lustrous metal
 It can take high polish
 It can be welded easily
 It is hard malleable and magnetic
PROPERTIES OF NICKEL
Nickel is a greyish-white lustrous metal
 Its resistance to corrosion is high
 Its specific gravity is 8.9
 Its melting point is 1452°C
USES OF NICKEL
Coins
Gas turbines
Medical Instruments
USES OF NICKEL
Chemical Apparatus
USES OF NICKEL
Crucibles
German Silver
Domestic Utensils
TIN
It is extracted from black oxide of tin, casseterite (SnO2,78.6 per

cent tin). Tin is extracted from the ore by crushing, roasting and
melting to a temperature of about 1000°C in a way similar to that of
coppers
PROPERTIES OF TIN
• It is a silvery-white, lustrous, and extremely
malleable metal
• It is soft that it can be cut by a knife
• Its specific gravity is 7.3 and it melts at 232°C
PROPERTIES OF TIN
• It is harder, more ductile and stronger than
lead. Tin is as ductile as soft steel
• It is highly resistant to corrosion and has low
tensile strength
USES OF TIN
Tin Cans
Utensils
Furnace Pipes
ALLOYS OF TIN
SOLDER
It is obtained by alloying tin with antimony
(0.5-3%), lead (5-40%) and tin (40-95%).
These have low melting points. Solder is used
for joining copper, lead, tin, iron, zinc, etc.
ALLOYS OF TIN
BABBIT METALS
these are alloys with tin base containing
small proportions of copper and antinomy.
These are used for making bearings.
ALLOYS OF TIN
WHITE METALS
It is an alloy of tin, lead and antimony with
copper in varying proportions. It is used for
making bearings. This bearing metal
accommodates itself for any defect in the
alignment of bearings.
ALLOYS OF TIN
PEWTER
It is an alloy of tin 75 percent and lead 20-
25%. It has high corrosion resistance.

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C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D T E S T I N G

WHAT ARE METALS?

They exist in nature as compounds like oxides,

WHAT ARE METALS?

Those used for engineering purposes are classified

WHERE DO METALS COME FROM?

Ore – is an occurrence of rock or sediment that

HISTORY OF METAL AND

HISTORY OF METAL AND

HISTORY OF METAL AND

Home Insurance Building (Chicago, United States) –

HISTORY OF METAL AND

Home Insurance Building (Chicago, United States) –

10. Ultimate Strength

NON FERROUS METALS

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

HOW METALS ARE MADE?

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

IMPORTANT IRON ORES

COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON

MANUFACTURING OF PIG IRON

After the ores are brought out from mines, they

MANUFACTURING OF PIG IRON

After dressing and separation of impurities of

MANUFACTURING OF PIG IRON

MANUFACTURING OF PIG IRON

MANUFACTURING OF PIG IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF PIG IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF PIG IRON

Foundry Pig (Grey Pig)

CLASSIFICATION OF PIG IRON

Forge Pig (White Pig)

CLASSIFICATION OF PIG IRON

PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON

• It is hard and brittle

PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON

USES OF PIG IRON

USES OF PIG IRON

USES OF PIG IRON

Element Content (%)

Manganese, Mn Less than 2%

Sulfur, S Limited to max of 0.15%

Phosphorus, P Approximately 0.6%

MANUFACTURING OF CAST IRON

MANUFACTURING OF CAST IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

WHITE CAST IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON