Understanding Psychology

ELEVENTH EDITION
Charles G. Morris, Albert A. Maisto

Chapter 7
Cognition and
Mental AbilitiesThe
Science
of Psychology
Enduring Issues in
Cognition and
Mental Abilities
 The
processes
whereby
we acquire ognition
and use
knowledge
Building Blocks of
Thought
Building Blocks of Thought

The three most

important building
blocks of thought:
 Flexible system of
communication that uses
sounds, rules, gestures,
or symbols to convey
information

anguage
Language
LO 7.2 Explain how phonemes, morphemes, and grammar (syntax and semantics) work together
to form a language.

Basic sounds that make up

any language

Surface and underlying Smallest

meanings of words and meaningful
phrases units of speech

LANGUAGE

Rules for combining Rules that determine how

words to form sounds and words can be
meaningful phrases, combined and used to
sentences communicate
Direction of Movement in Speech
Production and Comprehension
Images
LO 7.3 Give an example of how images can be used to think about something.

• Mental representations of
sensory experiences
– Allow us to think about things in
nonverbal ways
Concepts
LO 7.4 Explain how concepts can be used in thinking.

• Mental categories for

classifying objects, people, or
experiences
– Prototype (or model):
mental model containing the most
typical features of a concept.
Language, Thought,
and Culture
Language, Thought, and Culture
LO 7.5 Summarize the evidence for the idea that people in different cultures perceive and think
about the world in different ways. Explain what is meant by “linguistic determinism” and
summarize the evidence for and against it.

Benjamin Whorf Critics

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis • Psychologists have
• The language we speak softened Whorf hypothesis
determines the pattern of • Language, thought, culture
thinking and view of the world are intertwined
• Position is referred to as • Experience shapes
Linguistic Determinism language, language affects
subsequent experience
Is Language Male Dominated?

Research supports the

idea that words such as
he or she influence our
perception of males and
females.
The words he and man are
often used to refer to all
people.
Nonhuman
Language and
Thought
Nonhuman Thought and Language
LO 7.6 Explain the following statement: “All animals communicate, but only humans use language to
communicate.”

• All animals communicate

in some way.
• Only humans can communicate
verbally and in complex ways.
• Research: Some animals
have humanlike
cognitive capacities.
Animal Cognition
LO 7.7 Summarize research evidence that supports the statement that “non-human animals have some humanlike
cognitive capacities.” Identify three general aspects of the problem-solving process.

Studies indicate other animals have

some humanlike cognitive capacities.
• Alex the Parrot
• Counted to 6
• Identified more than 50 objects
• Classified objects
• Dolphins
• Object selection on the basis of
same/different
• Respond to numerical concept of
more/less
• Chimps
• Demonstrate numeration
and serialization
Problem Solving
Three Aspects of the Problem-Solving
Process
Interpreting Problems
LO 7.8 Explain why problem representation is an important first step in solving problems.
Discuss divergent and convergent thinking, verbal, mathematical and visual
representation, and problem categorization.

Problem representation:
First step in problem-solving;
involves interpreting or
defining the problem
Divergent & Convergent Thinking

CONVERGENT DIVERGENT

Thinking directed Thinking that meets the

toward one criteria of originality,
correct inventiveness, and
solution to flexibility
a problem
Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress
LO 7.9 Distinguish between trial and error, information retrieval, algorithms, and heuristics as ways of
solving problems. Give an example of hill climbing, subgoals, means-end analysis, and working
backward.

Problem-Solving Strategies
Trial and Error
Works best when choices
Information
retrieval are limited; wastes
time when there
Algorithm
are many options
to test.
Heuristics
Implementing Strategies
and Evaluating Progress

Problem-Solving Strategies

Trial and Error Retrieval of information

from long-term
Information
retrieval memory about how
the problem was
Algorithm
solved in the past.
Heuristics
Implementing Strategies
and Evaluating Progress

Problem-Solving Strategies
Trial and Error
Step-by-step method of
Information problem solving that
retrieval
guarantees a correct solution.
Algorithm

Heuristics
Implementing Strategies
and Evaluating Progress
Problem-Solving Strategies
Rules of thumb that help in simplifying and
Trial and Error solving problems, but do not guarantee a
correct solution
Information • Hill climbing: Moves you closer to the final
retrieval goal with each step
• Subgoals: Use intermediate, more
Algorithm manageable goals to make it easier to reach
the final goal
Heuristics • Means-end analysis: Aims to reduce the
discrepancy between the current situation
and the desired goal at a number of
intermediate points
• Working backward: Start at end goal and work
backwards through the steps of the solution
Obstacles to Solving Problems
LO 7.10 Explain how “mental sets” can help or hinder problem solving.

• Level of motivation, or
emotional arousal
• Mental set: The tendency
to perceive and to
approach problems in
certain ways.
– Functional fixedness:
Perceive only a limited
number of uses for an object.
– Brainstorming:
Helps to minimize mental
sets.
1. Eliminate poor choices.
2. Visualize a solution.
3. Develop expertise.
4. Think flexibly.
Decision Making
Decision Making
LO 7.11 Explain how decision making differs from problem solving.

• Type of problem solving

• Already know all the possible
solutions or choices
• Task is to identify the best
available one
Compensatory Decision Making
LO 7.12 Describe the process of compensatory decision making.

Compensatory model:
Rational decision-making model in which choices are
systematically evaluated on various criteria.
Decision-Making Heuristics
LO 7.13 Describe several decision-making heuristics.

Representativeness: Availability: Confirmation bias:

A new situation is A judgment or The tendency to
judged on the basis decision is based look for evidence in
of its resemblance on information that support of a belief
to a stereotypical is most easily and to ignore
model. retrieved from evidence that would
memory. disprove it.
Framing
LO 7.14 Explain how framing can affect decisions.

• Perspective from which

we interpret information
before making a decision
• Way information is
presented can influence a
final decision
Explaining Our Decisions
LO 7.15 Explain how hindsight bias and
counterfactual thinking affect
the way we view
our decisions after the fact.

Hindsight bias
• The tendency to see
outcomes as inevitable and
predictable after we know
the outcome

Counterfactual thinking
• Thinking about alternative
realities and things that
never happened
 Cognitive Bias
• A cognitive bias is a pattern of poor judgment,
often triggered by a particular situation.
• The existence of most of the particular
cognitive biases listed has been verified in
psychology experiments.
 Why they exist
• Cognitive biases are influenced by evolution and
natural selection pressure.
• Some are presumably adaptive and beneficial, for
example, because they lead to more effective actions
in given contexts or enable faster decisions, when
faster decisions are of greater value for reproductive
success and survival.
• Others presumably result from a general fault in
human brain structure or the misapplication of a
mechanism that is beneficial under different
circumstances.
 Some areas where Cognitive biases
occur
• Decision-making and behavioral biases.

• Biases in probability and belief.

• Social biases.

• Memory errors and biases

 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
Many of these biases are studied for how they affect
belief formation, business decisions, and scientific
research.
• Anchoring – the common human tendency to rely
too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of
information when making decisions.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Bandwagon effect - the tendency to do (or believe)
things because many other people do (or believe)
the same. Related to groupthink and herd behaviour.
• Bias blind spot – the tendency to see oneself as less
biased than other people.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Confirmation bias - the tendency to search for or
interpret information in a way that confirms one's
preconceptions.
• Contrast effect - the enhancement or diminishing of a
weight or other measurement when compared with a
recently observed contrasting object.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Empathy gap - the tendency to underestimate the
influence or strength of feelings, in either oneself or
others.
• Endowment effect - the fact that people often
demand much more to give up an object than they
would be willing to pay to acquire it.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Expectation bias - the tendency for experimenters to
believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their
expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to
disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding
weightings for data that appear to conflict with those
expectations.
• Framing effect - drawing different conclusions from the
same information, depending on how that information is
presented.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Hostile media effect - the tendency to see a media
report as being biased due to one's own strong partisan
views.
• Hyperbolic discounting - the tendency for people to have
a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs
relative to later payoffs, where the tendency increases
the closer to the present both payoffs are.
• Illusion of control - the tendency to overestimate one's
degree of influence over other external events.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Loss aversion - the disutility of giving up an object is
greater than the utility associated with acquiring it, (see
also Sunk costs effects and Endowment effect).
• exposure effect - the tendency to express undue liking
for things merely because of familiarity with them.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Neglect of probability - the tendency to completely
disregard probability when making a decision under
uncertainty.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Planning fallacy - the tendency to underestimate
task-completion times.
 Decision-making and behavioural
biases
• Post-purchase rationalisation - the tendency to persuade
oneself through rational argument that a purchase was a
good value.
 Biases in probability and belief
Many of these biases are often studied for how they
affect business and economic decisions and how
they affect experimental research.
• Anchoring effect – the tendency to rely too heavily,
or "anchor," on a past reference or on one trait or
piece of information when making decisions (also
called "insufficient adjustment").
 Biases in probability and belief
• Availability heuristic – estimating what is more likely by what
is more available in memory, which is biased toward vivid,
unusual, or emotionally charged examples.

• Base rate neglect or Base rate fallacy – the tendency to base

judgments on specifics, ignoring general statistical
information.
 Biases in probability and belief
• Gambler’s fallacy - the tendency to think that future
probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality
they are unchanged. Results from an erroneous
conceptualization of the Law of large numbers e.g.
"I've flipped heads with this coin five times
consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the
sixth flip is much greater than heads."
 Biases in probability and belief
• Hindsight bias - sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along"
effect, the tendency to see past events as being predictable at
the time those events happened. (sometimes phrased as
"Hindsight is 20/20").
• Illusory correlation - inaccurately perceiving a relationship
between two events, either because of prejudice or selective
processing of information.
• Just-world hypothesis – the tendency for people to want to
believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to
rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by
the victim(s).
 Social biases
• Dunning-Kruger effect - a twofold bias. On one hand the
lack of metacognitive ability deludes people, who
overrate their capabilities. On the other hand, skilled
people underrate their abilities, as they assume the
others have a similar understanding.
 Memory errors and biases
• Cryptomnesia – Despite knowing something, one is
unaware of how they came to know it
Multitasking
Multitasking
LO 7.16 Describe the research evidence on the effectiveness of multitasking.

• With digital technology

(i.e., iPods, Internet)
multitasking is a way of
life.
• According to research,
multitasking isn’t always
efficient.
• Multitasking may actually
interfere with the
successful completion of
task.
Intelligence and
Mental Abilities
Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.17 Compare and contrast the theories of intelligence put forth by Spearman, Thurstone,
Sternberg, Gardner, and Goleman.

Charles Spearman L.L. Thurstone

• Intelligence is a • Intelligence is
singular, general comprised of seven
quality about a person. distinct, independent
• People who are bright mental abilities.
in one area are usually • Individuals can excel
bright in other areas as in certain areas but
well. not in others.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

ANALYTICAL: Involves mental

processes emphasized by
most theories of intelligence

PRACTICAL: Involves CREATIVE: Involves

finding solutions to adapting to new tasks
practical and and situations, to gain
personal problems insight
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

1. Linguistic
2. Musical
3. Logical
mathematical
4. Spatial
5. Bodily-kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
Emotional Intelligence

Five traits that contribute to

emotional intelligence:
• Knowing one’s own
emotions.
• Managing one’s emotions.
• Using emotions to
motivate oneself.
• Recognizing the emotions
of other people.
• Managing relationships.
Comparing Gardner’s, Sternberg’s,
and Goleman’s Theories of
Intelligence
Intelligence Tests
LO 7.18 Describe the similarities and differences between the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the
Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and explain how they differ from group tests, performance tests, and
culture-fair tests of intelligence.

Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale First test developed to
Wechsler measure intelligence
Intelligence Scale
yielding an IQ
Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological
Measures
Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet • Individual intelligence tests

Intelligence Scale • Measure verbal and performance
Wechsler abilities and also yield an overall
Intelligence Scale IQ score
Group tests • One developed for adults and
another for children
Performance Tests – Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale:
Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)
Culture-Fair Tests
– Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children:
Biological Fourth Edition (WISC-IV)
Measures
Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet Written intelligence

Intelligence Scale
tests administered by
Wechsler
Intelligence Scale
one examiner to many
people at one time
Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological
Measures
Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet Intelligence tests that

Intelligence Scale
minimize the use of
Wechsler language
Intelligence Scale

Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological
Measures
Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet Intelligence tests

Intelligence Scale
designed to eliminate
Wechsler cultural bias by
Intelligence Scale
minimizing the use of
Group tests language as well as
the use of skills and
Performance Tests
values that vary
from one culture
Culture-Fair Tests
to another.
Biological
Measures
Intelligence
Tests
Stanford-Binet • Many efforts to
Intelligence Scale
assess intelligence
Wechsler using biological
Intelligence Scale
markers.
Group tests
• To date, no biological
Performance Tests
measure of
intelligence
Culture-Fair Tests approaches
accuracy of
Biological psychological
Measures
tests.
What Makes A Good Test?
LO 7.19 Explain what is meant by test “reliability” and “validity” and how psychologists determine whether an
intelligence test is reliable or valid. Summarize the criticisms of intelligence tests and the relationship
between IQ test scores and job and classroom success.

Reliability Split-half reliability

•Ability of a test to produce – Determines test reliability
consistent and stable scores by dividing the test into two
parts and checking the
agreement of scores on
both parts

Correlation coefficients
– Statistical measures of the
degree of association
between two variables, used
to measure reliability
What Makes A Good Test?

Validity
• Ability of a test to measure what
is has been designed to
measure.
• Content validity
– Having an adequate sample of
questions measuring the skills or
knowledge the test is supposed to
measure.

• Criterion-related validity
– Validity measured by a comparison of
the test score and independent
measures of what the test is designed
to measure.
Visualizing Reliability & Validity

I.Q. I.Q. I.Q.

UNRELIABLE & RELIABLE RELIABLE &

INVALID BUT INVALID VALID
Criticisms of IQ Tests

 Psychologists do not agree on content and the very

nature of intelligence.
 Wealth-children from wealthier families tend to
encourage academic success and have resources
available to support education.
 Tests do not account for cultural variation, discriminate
against minority groups.
Heredity,
Environment, and
Intelligence
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
LO 7.20 Summarize the evidence that both heredity and environment (including intervention
programs) affect intelligence.

Is intelligence inherited,
or is it the product of environment?

Heredity Environment
Approximately 50% of the differences in
intelligence are due to genetics, and
50% are due to differences in environment.

Intelligence
Heredity

Twin Studies
• Help scientists understand
the influence of heredity
• Identical twins raised
together – most similar IQs
• Identical twins raised by
different families – still have
very similar IQ scores
Environment

Influences
Many environmental influences
on intelligence:
• Socioeconomic status
• Prenatal nutrition
• Level of environmental
stimulation
Intervention programs:
• Milwaukee Project, Head Start
• Seem to have a significant
impact on cognition between
the ages of 3 and 5.
The IQ Debate: A Useful Model
LO 7.21 Explain the “Flynn Effect” and some of the explanations that have been offered for it.

Flynn Effect

• IQ scores have increased in the

population as a whole.
• Possible explanations:
– The population is better at test-taking.
– There have been improvements in
nutrition and health care.
– The modern world is increasingly
complex.
Mental Abilities and Human Diversity:
Gender and Culture
LO 7.22 Summarize the evidence regarding gender
differences and cultural differences in mental
abilities.

Gender

• Research: Males and females

don’t differ significantly in most
cognitive abilities.
• When observed, differences are:
– Relatively small
– Concentrated in very
specific skills
Mental Abilities and Human Diversity:
Gender and Culture

Culture

• Achievement gap between

American and Asian students
• American students lagging
behind
• Differences reflect cultural
attitudes toward importance of
ability and effort
Extremes of Intelligence
LO 7.23 Explain what is required for a diagnosis of intellectual disability (previously known as
mental retardation) and summarize what is known about its causes. Describe what is
meant by “inclusion” and whether it has been shown to be beneficial. Explain what is
meant by saying a person is “gifted.” Explain the pros and cons of special programs for
gifted children.

Intellectual Disability

• Low IQ and the inability to

function independently
must both be present
• Causes often unknown,
although approx. 25% of
cases can be traced to
biological causes
• Variety of intervention
programs
Extremes of Intelligence

• Special abilities usually

exhibited in only a few areas
• Causes often unknown
• Pros and cons to enrichment
programs
– Intellectually fulfilling
– Accompanied by social
concerns
Creativity
 The
ability to
produce novel
and socially
valued ideas
or objects

reativity
Intelligence and Creativity
LO 7.24 Define creativity. Describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence, and the
ways in which creativity has been measured.

• Early research
• No correlation between creativity
and intelligence,

• Early studies focused only on

bright individuals.

• Threshold theory
• Creativity and intelligence are
linked to a certain level of IQ, but
then the relationship disappears
– Support for this theory
has been mixed
Creativity Tests

1 Torrance Test of Creative Thinking

2 Christensen-Guilford Test

3 Remote Associates Test (RAT)

4 Wallach and Kogan Creative Battery

Lecture Activities
 Tower of Hanoi
Time to solve another problem. The object of the game is to move
ALL of the disks onto a different pole. The rules are these:
1) You can only move one disk at a time.
2) A bigger disk can't go on a smaller disk.
See how quickly you can solve the tower in seven moves.
Click the next slide to see the solution.
• Did you use an algorithm or a heuristic
to solve that problem?
• What types of day-to-day problems might require
algorithmic solutions?
• What types of daily problems could be handled more
heuristically?
• What do your conclusions suggest about the nature
of problem solving?
A Mental Set
Try this one. On your paper,
draw nine dots just like you
see up here. Then, see if you
can draw four straight lines
so that they pass through
ALL nine dots without lifting
your pencil from the page
AND without touching any
dot more than once?
(Click button to reveal solution)
Did you solve the problem? Did you experience any
“insight”? If not, what was it that kept you from doing
so? Was it thinking about the group of circles as a
square with solid boundaries? How can you break free
from mental sets to “step outside of the box” when you
need to?
Breaking Through
Functional Fixedness
On the next slide you will
see various items on a desk
and be presented with a
problem to be solved. Let’s
see who is able to break
through their functional
fixedness.
Using only the items on top of
the desk, how could you
attach the candle to the wall
ABOVE the desk, so that when
the candle burns, it does NOT
drip wax onto the desk?
Perhaps the most elegant
solution to this problem is to:
1. Empty the matches out
of the box.
2. Tack the empty box to the wall.
3. Place the candle in the box.
This solution requires one
to avoid fixating on the
normal function of the box
as that of holding matches.
Avoiding this trap allows
one to see more than one
use for the box (i.e., as a
candle holder).
See Gardner’s list of intelligences. Are there
any other types of intelligence Gardner’s list
might still be missing?
Intelligence Test Activity
The speed with which an
individual can verbally identify
simple concepts is a critical
measure of intelligence. In this
activity, you will be presented
with colored stimuli. Your task
will be to identify correct colors
as quickly as possible. We will
go through this as a group.
n
• Was this test a VALID
measure of
intelligence?
Why? Why not?
• Was this test a
RELIABLE measure of
intelligence? Why?
Why not?
Intelligence Testing
Could you create a
test that is free of
cultural bias? What
sorts of test items
might you
incorporate? Math?
Picture completion?
Explain your
reasoning.
Creativity
Time to harness some of that
doodling creativity. On a sheet
of notebook paper, see how
many different pictures you
can draw, using this image
comprising two circles. Don’t
worry about drawing perfect
pictures. Just make sure
that the circle image is in each
of your pictures. Work quickly.
You will have 60 seconds.
Time is up! After such a task, a psychologist
studying creativity might be interested in
answers to the following types of questions:
1. How many pictures did you draw?
2. Were the pictures from different semantic
categories (e.g., fruits, sports, cars, etc.)?
3. Were your pictures unique? In other words, did
you draw pictures that others probably did not?