Chapter 7:

Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• How do we increase strength?

• How can heating change strength and other properties?

 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest
linear densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (relatively close-packed)

in <110> directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur
Slip Systems that can and will operate
in the Cubic Metals:
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR
F
A
slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos  A/cos 
FS
F nS 
 A
tR FS AS
F

tR  s cos  cos 
Note: By definition  is the angle between the stress direction and Slip direction;  is the
angle between the normal to slip plane and stress direction
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR  tCRSS
• Crystal orientation can make
it easy or hard to move dislocation typically

tR  s cos  cos  10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa

s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
 =90°  =45°  =90°
 =45°
 Generally:

Resolved t (shear stress) is

maximum at  =  = 45º
And
tCRSS = sy/2 for dislocations to
move (in single crystals)
 Determining  and  angles for Slip in
Crystals (single X-tals this is easy!)
•  and  angles are respectively angle between tensile
direction and Normal to Slip plane and angle between
tensile direction and slip direction (these slip directions
are material dependent)
• And Remembering for cubic xtals, angles between
directions are given by:

 
u1u2  v1v2  w1w2
  Cos 1  
 
 u
2
1  
 v12  w12  u22  v22  w22  

• Thus for metals we compare Slip System (normal to slip

plane is a direction with exact indices as plane) to applied
tensile direction using this equation to determine the
values of  and  to plug into the tR equation to determine
if slip is expected
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
s
• Stronger since grain boundaries
pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions (, ) Adapted
change from one crystal to another. from Fig.
7.10,
Callister 7e.
• tR will vary from one crystal to (Fig. 7.10 is
courtesy of
another. C. Brady,
National
Bureau of

• The crystal with the largest tR Standards

[now the
National
yields first. Institute of
Standards

• Other (less favorably oriented)

and
Technology,
Gaithersburg
crystals yield (slip) later. , MD].)

300 mm
After seeing the effect of poly crystalline materials
we can say (as related to strength):
• Ordinarily ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is
strengthened.
• The relationship between dislocation motion and
mechanical behavior of metals is significance to
the understanding of strengthening mechanisms.
• The ability of a metal to plastically deform
depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
• Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this
simple principle: Restricting or Hindering
dislocation motion renders a material harder and
stronger.
• We will consider strengthening single phase
metals by: grain size reduction, solid-solution
alloying, and strain hardening
 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation: syield  so  k y d 1/ 2

Hall-Petch equation:
Grain Size Reduction Techniques:
•Increase Rate of solidification from the liquid phase.
•Perform Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate heat
treatment.
Notes:
 Grain size reduction also improves toughness of many
alloys.
Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in
interfering with the slip process because of the
small crystallographic misalignment across the
boundary.
Boundaries between two different phases are also
impediments to movements of dislocations.
 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions
 Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
 Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.
Stress Concentration at
Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the
“Compressive stress side”
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.
 Strengthening by alloying
• Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
“Tensile Stress” side – pinning dislocation

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.
 Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

400

300 120

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: s y ~ C 1/ 2
Adapted from Fig.
7.16 (a) and (b),
• Alloying increases sy and TS. Callister 7e.
Strategies for Strengthening: 3. Precipitation Strengthening

• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear. Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC

in Iron or Aluminum).

precipitate
Large shear stress needed to move
Side View dislocation toward precipitate and
shear it.
Dislocation “advances” but
Unslipped part of slip plane
Top View precipitates act as “pinning” sites
with spacing S. which “multiplies”
Dislocation density
S
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: sy ~
S
Application: Precipitation Strengthening

• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767

Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying & H.T.

Adapted from Fig.

11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
Strategies for Strengthening: 4. Cold Work (%CW)

• Room temperature deformation.

• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao container
die Ad die holder
Ao tensile force
ram billet extrusion
Ad
force
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao
 During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:
• Dislocations entangle and
multiply
• Thus, Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
0.9 mm Technological
University.)
 Result of Cold Work
Dislocation density = total dislocation length
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2
s
• Yield stress increases sy1 large hardening
s
as rd increases: y0 small hardening

e
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Lo-Carbon Steel!
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
Copper
Cold
Work

D o =15.2mm D d =12.2mm

2 2
ro  rd
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working to 35.6%?

yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)

60
700 800

40
500 600
Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200
0 20 40 60 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
YS = 300 MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American
Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
 s - e Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
ductility 20 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American
Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
Results from of atoms Dislocations
annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
of tension atomic
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a low dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
 Recrystallization Temperature, TR

TR = recrystallization temperature = point

of highest rate of property change
1. TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion  annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent on
• Empirical Relation: material & Temp.
exponent typ. ~ 2
elapsed time
grain dia. At time t.
d  d  Kt
n n
o This is: Ostwald Ripening
 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
 Coldwork Calculations

A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2

mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by
drawing. The circular cross section will be
maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380
MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are
desired. Further more, the final diameter must
be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter what
happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

 Ao  Af   Af 
%CW    x 100  1   x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 Df2 4    0.30 2 
 1   x 100  1     x 100  43.8%
 Do 4 
2   0.40  
 
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL > 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12 – 27%

This process Needs an Intermediate Recrystallization
i.e.: Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
 D f 22  D f 22 %CW
%CW  1  2 
x 100  1 
 Ds 2  Ds 2 2 100

0.5 Df 2
Df 2  %CW   Ds 2 
 1    %CW 
0.5

Ds 2  100  1  
 100 
0.5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = D f 1  Ds 2  0.30 1    0.335 in
 100 
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = 0.335 in

2. Anneal above Ds2 = Df1

3. Cold work Ds2= 0.335 in  Df 2 =0.30 in

 2
 
%CW1  1 
0.335 
x 100  30
  0.4  
 
s y  340 MPa
  0.3  2

%CW2  1  
  0.335 
 x 100  20

 TS  400 MPa
 

%EL  24
Fig 7.19
Therefore, meets all requirements
 Summary
• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.