HYDRAULICS

(DAC 21003)
 CHAPTER 2

FLUID PRESSURE CONCEPT

&
MEASUREMENT
 CONTENT
 TYPES OF PRESSURE

 PRESSURE VARIATION SUBJECT

TO FLUID DEPTH

 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
TYPES OF PRESSURE

 Atmospheric Pressure
 Surface of the earth depends upon head of air above the surface.
 At sea level (101.3 kN/m2) = 10.35 m of water or 760 mm of Hg

 Vacuum
 Pressure is zero (perfectly empty in space).

Vacuum Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Absolute Pressure

 Gauge Pressure.
 Measured above or below atmospheric pressure.

 Absolute Pressure.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

 Positive Pressure Gauge

Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
P = 0 k Pa Gauge or
P = 101 kPa Absolute

Absolute Pressure

Vacuum Pressure or
Negative Pressure Gauge
Absolute Zero Pressure

Figure 2.1: Relationship between types of pressure

EXAMPLE 2.1

Find the absolute pressure in kPa unit if

Barometer shows the reading of 60 kPa.
Given that Barometer reading at sea level
is 740 mmHg and specific gravity of
mercury is 13.6.

SOLUTION:

Given:-
Gauge pressure, Pgage = 60 kPa
Atmospheric pressure, Patm = 740 mmHg
Mercury specific gravity, S.gmercury = 13.6
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Known that,
Patm = mgh (m = mercury density)

Patm = (13.6)(1000)(9.81)(740/1000)

Patm = 98.728 kPa

x
s.g x 
w

Hence,
Pabs = Pgage + Patm

Pabs = 60 + 98.73

Pabs = 158.728 kPa

 PRESSURE VARIATION SUBJECT TO
FLUID DEPTH
FORCE AND PRESSURE AT A POINT

 External forces acting on the fluid element are due to the

pressure and weight.

 Force  distributed to all mass or volume of the element.

 Cause by external factors ie: gravity, electromagnet etc.

 Pressure can be represented as:

Where:
F
P …………….. ( 2.1 )
A

F = Force (N)
A = Area (m2)
PASCAL LAW

 Was inroduced by Blaise Ascal – French (1623 – 1662).

 States - the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is

independent of direction as long as there are no shearing stress
present.

P3 z
B
q
P1

x
A C
W
P2

Figure 2.2: Pressure at a point in fluid at rest

PASCAL LAW... continued
 Consider the free-body diagram obtained by removing a small triangle wedge of
fluid from some arbitrary location within a fluid mass;
(a) Summation of horizontal forces,
(P1  AB  1) – (P3  BC  1) cos q = 0 (i)
where,
cos q = AB / BC
 P1 = P3 (ii)

(b) Summation of vertical forces,

(P2  AB  1) – (P3  BC  1) sin q – W = 0 (iii)
where,
sin q = AC / BC
W=0  (one point is considered)

 P2 = P3 (iv)
From equation (ii) and (iv), it was found that;

P1 = P2 = P3

Hence, pressures at a point in fluid at rest is same at any direction

EXAMPLE 2.2

Find the pressure at 25 m depth below

water free surface inside a reservoir.

SOLUTION:

Given:-
Depth of water, h = 25 m
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3

Hence,
P = h

P = (9.81)(25)

P = 245.25 kN/m2
PRESSURE HEAD

 Pressure increase with depth.

 Consider a container consist of fluid and cylinder was put
inside as shown in Figure 2.3;
Cylinder

Container

h

Figure 2.3: Pressure head

 Sum of pressure at sylinder base = Fluid weight inside cylinder
PA=  A h

P  h ............................ ( 2.2 )
where,
h = Fluid height in cylinder
 = Specific weight

Hence, pressure in fluid is proportioned with depth

PRESSURE HEAD …. continued

 Pressure is not influenced by the size or shape (Figure 2.4);

Liquid surface
( P = Po )

h
(specific weight = )
A B

Figure 2.4: Fluid equilibrium in a container or arbitrary shape

 The actual value of pressure along AB depends only on the depth,

h, the surface pressure, Po and the specific weight,  of the
liquid in the container, thus;
P  h
 Pressure also can be expressed in height of free surface, where;
P P
h 
 g
EXAMPLE 2.3
Figure below shows 4 different fluid inside a glass
container at 20C. If atmospheric and absolute
pressure at the surface and base are 101.03 kPa
and 231.3 kPa, find the specific graviy of olive
oil.

SAE 30 Oil 1.5 m

Water 2.5 m

Olive oil 2.9 m

Mercury 0.4 m
SOLUTION:

Given:-
Patm = 101.3 kPa
Pabs = 231.3 kPa

Refer Chapter 1 : Table A.3

(Relative density value for different fluids)

PSAE 30 = (sgSAE 30)(ρw)(g)(h)

PSAE30 = (0.92)(1000)(9.81)(1.5)
PSAE30= 13537.8 Pa

Pw = (sgw) (ρw) (g)(h)

Pw = (1)(1000)(9.81)(2.5)
Pw = 24525 Pa
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Polive = (sgolive)(ρw) (g)(h)

Polive = (sgolive)(1000)(9.81)(2.9)
Polive = 28449 sgolive

Pm = (sgm)(ρw) (g)(h)
Pm= (13.56)(1000)(9.81)(0.4) = 53209.4 Pa

Known that,

Patm + PSAE30 + Pw + Polive + Pm = Pabs

Polive = Pabs – (Patm + PSAE30 + Pw + Pm)
28449 sgolive = (231.3)(1000) – [(101.03)(1000) +
13537.8 + 24525 + 53209.3

sgolive = 1.4
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Device :-

i. Piezometer
ii. Manometer
iii. Bourdon Gauge
iv. Tansducer
 PIEZOMETER
 Example type of manometer.
 To measure pressure in pipe.
 Suitable for measuring moderate pressure of fluids.
 Fluid in pipe is same in piezometer tube.
 Tube diameter should at least 0.5 inch or 12 mm  avoid
capillary error.

h h

P  h

Figure 2.5: Piezometer

Let’s take a
break!!!
EXAMPLE 2.4
Water flow from point A to B in a pipe as shown
in figure below. Find pressure at point A and B.

Hydraulic Grade Line

Pitot tube
2.1 m

B
4.8 m
ater
w

8m
A
6m
Datum
SOLUTION:

At point A pressure head, hA :-

PA
hA 
g
PA
6  4.8 
(1000)(9.81)
 PA  105948 Pa  105.95 kPa

At point B pressure head, hB :-

PB
hA 
g
PB
8  2.1 
(1000)(9.81)
 PB  99081 Pa  99.08 kPa
 MANOMETER
Types of manometers :-

 Simple U-Tube Manometers

 Differential Manometers

 Inverted Manometers
SIMPLE U-TUBE MANOMETERS

PB
PA B

A
h1

h2
x x

Figure 2.6: Simple U-Tube Manometers

 SIMPLE U-TUBE MANOMETERS
 Usually mercury is used to measure high gauge pressure.
 Not suitable for gas pressure.
 Consider left and right side;

Px-left = Px-right
where,
Px-left = PA + A gh2

Px-right = Patm + B g(h1+h2)

Patm = 0 (as datum) therefore, PA B

PB

A
h1

PA + A gh2 = B g(h1+h2) x
h2
x

PA = B g(h1+h2) - A gh2
EXAMPLE 2.5
Calculate pressure at A in kN/m2 if h1 = 50 cm,
h2 = 120 cm, A = 1000 kg/m3 and
B = 13560 kg/m3
w
(water) B

h1
A

h2

x x
m
(mercury)
SOLUTION:
Consider left and right side of manometers,

Px-left = Px-right
where,

Px  left  PA   w gh 2
Px  left  PA  (1000)(9.81)(0.12)
Px  left  PA  1177.2

Px  right  Patm   m g(h1  h 2 )

Px  right  Patm  (13560)(9.81)(0.12  0.05)
Px  right  Patm  22614.012
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

(Patm = 0  expose to air) therefore;

PA  1177.2  0  22614.012
PA  21436.8 N/m2  21.44 kN/m2
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

A

B

Figure 2.7: Differential Manometers

 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

 Used to measure pressure difference between 2 points.

 Consider left and right side;

Px-left = Px-right
where,
Px-left = PA + A gh2

Px-right = PB + B gh1 + A gh1 (h3 – h1)

hence,

PA + A gh2 = PB + B gh1 + A g (h3 –h1)

PA - PB = B gh1 + Ag (h3 - h1) - A gh2

PA - PB = B gh1 + Ag (h3 - h1 - h2)

EXAMPLE 2.6
Figure below show diffential manometers used to
measure pressure inside a pipe. If PA – PB = 120
kPa, find h.

Water
(s.g = 1.0) B

1.6 m
A

Mercury
h (s.g = 13.6)

x x
SOLUTION:
Consider left and right side of manometers,

Remenber:
Px-left = Px-right x
where, s.g x 
w

Px  left  PA   w g(h a  h )
Px  left  PA  (1000)(9.81)(h a  h )
Px  left  PA  9810h a  9810h

Px  right  PB  m gh   w g(ha  hb )
Px  right  PB  s.g m . w gh   w g(ha  hb )
Px  right  PB  (13.6)(1000)(9.81)(h )  (1000)(9.81)(ha  1.6)
Px  right  PB  133416h  9810ha  15696
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Equal the pressure at x – x line left and right side therefore;

PA  9810h a  9810h  PB  133416h  9810h a

PA  PB  133416h  9810h  15696
120 x 103  123606h  15696
h  0.844 m
INVERTED MANOMETERS

air

x x
h1

h2
PA
A
h3

PB
B

a

Figure 2.8: Inverted Manometers

 INVERTED MANOMETERS
 Mercury is used to measure pressure if fluid is low density, ie oil.
 Consider left and right side;

Px-left = Px-right
where,
Px-left = PA - a gh2 – air gh1  (neglect air)

Px-right = PB - agh3 - ρagh1 = PB - ρag (h3 + h1)

air
hence,
PA - agh2 = PB - ag (h3 + h1)
x x
h1

h2
PA
h3
PA - PB = agh2 - ag (h3 + h1) A

PB
B

a
EXAMPLE 2.7
Figure below show inverted manometers used to
measure pressure inside a pipe. Find the pressure
difference of PA – PB.
Fluid X
(s.g = 0.9)

x x

0.25 m
1.625 m

0.5 m

A Water
(s.g = 1.0)
SOLUTION:
Consider left and right side of manometers,

Px-left = Px-right
where,

Px  left  PA   w g(h a )
Px  left  PA  (1000)(9.81)(1.625)
Px  left  PA  15941.25

Px  right  PB   x gh b   w gh c
Px  right  PB  s.g x . w gh b   w gh c
Px  right  PB  (0.9)(1000)(9.81)(0.25)  (1000)(9.81)(1.625  0.25  0.5)
Px  right  PB  2207.25  8583.75
Px  right  PB  10791
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Equal the pressure at x – x line left and right side therefore;

PA  15941.25  PB  10791
PA  PB  5150.25 kN/m2
 BOURDON GAUGE
 Commonly measure gauge pressures or vacuum.
 A curved tube of elliptical cross section tend to straighten if
subjected to higher pressure.

Figure 2.9: Bourdon gage

 TRANSDUCER
 Converts pressure into electric signal in digital form.
 Commonly used  “Strain-gage base transducer”.
 As pressure changes  the deflection of the diaphragm
changes  changes the electrical output  provide
pressure.

Figure 2.10: Transducer

TIME’S UP …

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