Sampling and Sample Size

Sampling

 Sample: a subset of the population

 Sampling: the process of selecting a sample
from the population
The Rationale of Sampling
 Sampling a segment of a population can save
time and money, yet provide an accurate
description of a population
 Key issue: sample must be representative
 Poorly selected samples misrepresent the
population

4-2
Tatang A Gumanti
 Important Issues

 Is the sample representative of the population in

those characteristics that we are studying?
 What methods do we use to obtain a
"representative sample?“
 Is the distribution of the characteristics studies in
the sample similar to that of the population? (Is
there a big discrepancy?)
 How big is the sampling error?
 How can we decrease the sampling error?

4-3
Tatang A Gumanti
 Key Definitions

 Population: the entire group one wishes to describe

E.g., students living in residence, rats in captivity

 Sampling frame: the list from which a sample is
selected
 Ideally, sampling frame is same as population, but
seldom possible; creates challenges
 Representativeness: The characteristics of the
elements included in the sample match those of the
population.
 Response rate: the percentage of delivered
questionnaires completed and returned
4-4
Tatang A Gumanti
 Methods of determining sample size

 arbitrary approach
 conventional approach
 cost basis approach
 statistical approach – confidence
interval method

4-5
Tatang A Gumanti
 Arbitrary Approach

 x % of the population
 simple and easy to apply
 this approach is neither efficient nor economical
 Example shoe research:
 Population (runner) – 10,000 – 5% sample 500
 Population (basketball) - 100,000 – 5% sample 5000
 Could there be a 10 times difference between runners
and basketball player? – No
 arbitrary method - lose sight of the accuracy aspect
of sampling & not economical when population is
large
4-6
Tatang A Gumanti
 Conventional Approach

 decision based on some “convention” or number

believed somehow to be the right sample size
 same sample size that was used the last time
 or a manager is aware that opinion polls have a sample
size 1000-1200 respondents – this is then the
convention for other research even if the population is of
a different size
 basing a decision on previous research assumes that the
sample size was accurately determined
 precision (accuracy) for current survey may be higher or
lower then required
 so this approach ignores special circumstances of the
survey at hand & could be more costly
4-7
Tatang A Gumanti
 Cost Basis Approach

 due to a research budget, x amount allocated to

research
 cost based sample size is a case of the tail
wagging the dog – sample size determined by
budget
 better approach is to consider cost relative to the
value of the research – manager to consider how
much the research is really worth
 Manager & researcher to discuss alternative
sample sizes, data collection modes, and other
considerations to achieve value from the research
4-8
Tatang A Gumanti
 Sample Size for Non Probability sample

 sample size is unrelated to accuracy (with a non

probability method), so cost- benefit
considerations must be used in determining the
sample size
 subjective exercise

4-9
Tatang A Gumanti
 Statistical Approach-
confidence interval method of determining sample size

 used with probability based sampling

methods
 4 underlying concepts
 Variability
 Confidence interval
 Sampling distribution
 Standard error of a mean or percentage

4-10
Tatang A Gumanti
 Sample Size & Accuracy (sample error)

 The larger a probability sample is, the more

accurate it is (less sample error)
 Sample size 50 - accuracy ± 13.9%
 250 ± 6.2%
 500 ± 4.4%
 only marginal gains in accuracy (reduced
sample error) as sample size > above 500

4-11
Tatang A Gumanti
 Variability
(p and q notions; standard deviation)

 refers to how similar or dissimilar responses are to a given

question (impt to study)
 proportion – nominal data ‘The next time you order pizza, will you
use Domino’s?’ (90% yes; 10% no) – variability – low ; if however
50:50 maximum variability
 p = percentage
 q = 100% - p
 Mean/standard deviation - Interval type response scale or a
continuous interval/ratio measure (ie sales)– if all respondents
indicated about the same position on scale – little variability (small
standard deviation)
 with a normal distribution – a more peaked curve – low standard
deviation and low variability; a flatter curve – higher deviation and
more variability

4-12
Tatang A Gumanti
 Confidence Interval

 is a range whose endpoints define a certain

percentage of the responses to a question based on
a bell shaped curve
 e.g. 1.96 x standard deviation defines the endpoints
for 95% of the distribution
 Central limit theorem
 Mean ± 1.96 x standard deviation
 SD only factor to affect confidence interval size
 p ± 1.96 x sample error (sample error
 Square root of p times q divided by sample size n)
 Sample size affects shape of normal curve &
confidence interval range
4-13
Tatang A Gumanti
 Sampling Distribution

 it refers to what would be found if the researcher could

take many, many independent samples
 normal bell shaped curve would show that many of the
sample means fall very close to the true population
mean, with a small percentage falling above and below
 there is a high probability that any given sample mean
will be close to the population mean

4-14
Tatang A Gumanti
 Standard error of a mean or percentage

 Standard error of the mean = standard deviation (s) of

the sample divided by square root of the sample size (n)
(s/ n)

 Standard error of a percentage = square root of p X q

divided by sample size (n) ( pxq/n)

 Standard error (accuracy) is used in the sample size

calculation and is an estimate or judgement measure.
After the study is completed the standard error should be
calculated using the above formula

4-15
Tatang A Gumanti
 Sample size using a percentage

z2 (pq)
n = e2

n = the sample size

z = standard error associated with the chosen level of
confidence (1.96) (95%)
p = estimated percent in the population
q = 100 – p
e = acceptable sample error
* Refer page 11.8 study book

4-16
Tatang A Gumanti
 Sample size using a mean

s2 z2
n = e2
n = the sample size
z = standard error associated with the chosen level of
confidence (1.96) (95%)
s = variability indicated by an est. standard dev.
e = allowable error in the sample estimate of the population
* Refer page 11.4 study book

4-17
Tatang A Gumanti
 How to estimate variability in the population

 Prior research, experience, and/or intuition

 Pilot study
 Range estimate for a mean – if a 5 point Likert
scale is used to collect data on an important
question, take the range (5) and divide by ± 3
standard deviations (5 / 6 = .83)
 for a mean based on continuous data- use past
research, experience, pilot study to estimate mean
 Percentage – maximum variability is the 50%
case p = 50%

4-18
Tatang A Gumanti
 Determine the amount of desired sample error

 Researcher will need to help the decision maker

to understand sample error implications on
sample size
 Percentage approach = ± e percent (5%
acceptable error – more accurate & a larger
sample then say 15% - less accurate and small
sample)
 Mean approach – allowable error ± absolute
number or use a relative error % of the mean

4-19
Tatang A Gumanti
 Decide on level of confidence desired

 95 % or 99% level of confidence is standard in

sample size determination
 95% z = 1.96
 99% z = 2.58
 Using a 99% confidence level will increase the
sample size by about 73%

4-20
Tatang A Gumanti
 Balance sample size with cost of data collection

 Size of the probability sample depends on the

client’s desired accuracy (sample error)
balanced against the cost of data collection for
the sample
sample error sample size sample cost*
±3.5% 784 $15,680
±5.0% 384 $7,680
±6.0% 267 $5,340

* Estimated at $20 per completed interview

4-21
Tatang A Gumanti
 Adjusting the statistically determined sample
size
 sample size calculated refers to the final number
of completed surveys
 Incidence rate – rate of occurrence or the % of
persons eligible to participate in the study - -if
the (sample frame)data base is comprised of
females aged 20-60, but study is based on
female head of households aged 25-55. 75%
meet criteria - on average need to contact 1.33
respondents to get 1 completed questionnaire

4-22
Tatang A Gumanti
 Adjusting the statistically determined sample
size cont

 Completion rate - % of qualified respondents

who complete the interview / questionnaire
statistical sample size
sample size = incidence rate X completion rate
300
666 = .75 X .60

.75 – the incident rate of eligible respondent in sample frame (75%)

.60 – expected response rate (60% response rate – this is high)
300 – statistically calculated sample size

4-23
Tatang A Gumanti
Adjusting the statistically determined sample size cont
 Response rate

 % of respondents who responded to a survey compared

to the number approached or asked to respond
300
Response rate = 666 = 45%

666 – 166 = 500 eligible respondents to complete

questionnaire
300
500 = 60% response rate
Actual response rate to be reported (complete usable
questionnaires)

4-25
Tatang A Gumanti
 Probability Sampling Techniques

 Four types:
 Simple random sample
 Systematic sample

 Stratified sample

 Multi-stage area sample

4-26
Tatang A Gumanti
 Simple Random Sample

 Each unit in the population has an equal

chance of being selected from a list
 Requires having a list of potential participants
 List of eligible voters, companies, students, libraries
 Process:
 Number the units on the list
 Use table of random numbers or computer to make
selection

4-27
Tatang A Gumanti
 Systematic Sample

 Each sampling unit has an equal chance of

being selected, by choosing the nth case,
starting randomly
 E.g., units listed in phone book, directories, street map
 Process
 Secure list: map, diagram, list
 Divide sample required into number on the list to
determine the skip interval
 Choose a random number used to begin randomly
then every nth number selected

4-28
Tatang A Gumanti
 Systematic Sampling

 How big is your population (sampling frame)?

 1590 participants
 How big a sample do you want?
 Percentage - 2%
= 1590 * 2/100 = 31.8 (round to 32)
 Specific Number - 60 participants
 How big is the skip interval?
 2% is two out of 100, or 1 out of 50 - interval is 50
 60 participants out of 1590 = 1590/60 = 26.5 - interval is 26 (round down)
 Choose random number to begin between 1 and interval # (1 and 50
or 1 and 26) - Eg., picked 23
 Start with 23rd participant on list
 2% - 23, 73, 123, 173,…1573.
 60 - 23, 49, 75, 101, 127…1583.

4-29
Tatang A Gumanti
 Stratified Sample

 Sampling within subgroups to ensure an

adequate representation of each subgroup
 Important when subgroup is small in number
 Employs a random selection method
 May be proportionate or disproportionate
 Process:
 Determine sample size needed for subgroups
 Obtain list for each subgroup
 Use either simple random or systematic sampling
select respondents

4-30
Tatang A Gumanti
 Stratified

Sampling the population is divided into strata, such as women and men,
black and white, etc., from which random samples are drawn

4-31
Tatang A Gumanti
 Multi-Stage Area Sample/ Cluster Sample

 This method is used when study involves a large

population such as provinces or a whole country
for which no list exists
 Identify primary sampling units: select sample
(provinces)
 Identify sub-units within selected units (school
board): select sample
 Identify sub-units within sub-units (school): select
sample
 Within sub-units select sample (pupils)
 Selection is always done randomly

4-32
Tatang A Gumanti
 Non-Probability Sampling

 Non-probability samples do not provide an equal

or a known chance of being selected
 Hence, no assurance that the sample will be
representative of the study population
 Four types:
 Quota sample
 Convenience sample
 Purposive
 Referral

4-33
Tatang A Gumanti
 Quota Sample

 Respondents are selected on the basis of

meeting certain criteria (left-handed males, left-
handed females)
 No list of potential respondents is required:
usually done on a first-come, first-included basis
until quota is filled
 Sampling stops when enough are included in
each category
 Cannot claim that the sample represents the
population

4-34
Tatang A Gumanti
 Convenience Sampling

 Sample selection motivated by convenience to

the researcher
 E.g., Psychology participant pool
 Strong potential for recruiting a non-
representative sample

4-35
Tatang A Gumanti
 Purposive Sampling

 Use judgment and deliberate effort to pick

subjects who meet the criteria in order to get a
representative sample.
 Clinical cases
 Specific experts

4-36
Tatang A Gumanti
 Referral Sampling

 Used when participants with specific characteristics are

difficult to locate, such as people involved in deviant
groups (motorcycle gang) or activities (bank robbery) or
people with certain life experience (bride-to-be,
homeless) or occupation (First Nations fisher)
 Network - Utilize some form of referral to create a
network (e.g., Doctor’s office)
 Snowball - Sample selection depends upon current
participants recruiting other potential participants into the
study (gang, people who engage is specific sexual
behaviours, etc.)

4-37
Tatang A Gumanti
 Sampling Error

 Relation between Sample Size and Error

 The larger the sample size, the smaller the error.
However, this relation is not linear.
 Other things being equal, statistics calculated from
large samples are more accurate than those
calculated from small samples.
 Other things being equal, the more heterogeneous
the population (the greater SD on the dependant
variables), the larger the sample required.

4-38
Tatang A Gumanti
 4-39
Tatang A Gumanti
 Nonsampling error

 In the next slide - referred to as “systematic

error”
 all error in a survey except those due to the
sample plan (design) & sample size
 2 types –
 fieldworker error (administrative error)
 respondent error

4-40
Tatang A Gumanti
 Categories of Survey Errors
Nonresponse
error Acquiescence
bias

Respondent Deliberate
error falsification Extremity
Response bias
bias
Random
Unconscious Interviewer
sampling
misrepresentation bias
Total error
error
Auspices
Data bias
processing
Systematic
error Social
error (bias)
desirability
Sample bias
selection
Administrative error
error
Interviewer
error

Interviewer
cheating
 Nature of measurement

 Measurement in research consists of assigning

numbers or symbols to characteristics of objects
according to set of predetermined rules
 To do this we need to answer the question ‘What is to be
measured?’
 Based on the research problem – identify the relevant
concepts/constructs ie brand loyalty; service quality;
trust; value of an attraction
 Conceptual definition – define/ gives meaning to the
concept in the context of the study. Specifies what the
concept is and what it is not.
 Operational definitions – an explanation that gives
meaning to a concept by specifying the dimensions,
activities, factors etc necessary to measure it.

4-42
Tatang A Gumanti
 Example

 Concept - value consciousness

 Concept definition - the concern a consumer has for
paying low prices contingent on some product quality
expectation.
 Operational Statements (answer on 7 point likert scale)
 When grocery shopping, I compare the prices of
different brands to be sure I get the best value for
money.
 When I shop, I usually compare the ‘price per gram’
information for brands I normally buy.
 When purchasing a product, I always try to maximise
the quality I get for the money I spend
 etc. further statements would be developed
4-43
Tatang A Gumanti
 Recap - What is measured?

 Variables studied in research are classified as

objects or as properties.
 Objects – i.e. people, books, cars
 Properties – characteristics of the object i.e.
person’s physical properties – height, age,
posture; psychological properties – attitudes,
intelligence; social properties – status, leadership
abilities
 As researchers we do not measure objects or
properties but indicators – they are the
operational measures

4-44
Tatang A Gumanti
 Scaling

 Scaling: an extension of measurement.

 involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are
located
 Example – scale for locating consumers according to the
characteristic ‘attitude towards theme parks’ – unfavourable =1;
neutral = 2; favourable = 3

 Measurement – is the assignment of 1,2 or 3 to each respondent

 Scaling is the process by which respondents would be classified as
having unfavourable, neutral or favourable attitude towards theme
parks

4-45
Tatang A Gumanti
 Measurement and Scaling

 Why do we need to understand Measurement and

Scaling?
 As researchers we need to compare and contrast issues of
concern.

 Measurement and scale provides us with the tools to make

sense of the issues of concern in some structured and
logical manner.
 When choosing a measurement we must consider:
 measurement scales (levels of measurement)
 Response scales

 criteria for good measurement

 Note: there are also many other factors to consider when designing
a questionnaire

4-46
Tatang A Gumanti
 Measurement scales

 Nominal Scale
 numbers assigned to the object serve as labels for
identification i.e. gender (male, female); store type;
accommodation type
 (mode, frequency, percentage)

 Ordinal Scale
 a scale that arranges objects or alternatives according
to their magnitude in an ordered relationship i.e.
preference ranking for a product; social class
 (median, semi-interquartile range)

4-47
Tatang A Gumanti
 Measurement scales

 Interval Scale
 a scale that both arranges objects according to their
magnitude and also distinguishes this ordered
arrangements in units of equal intervals i.e. attitudes,
opinions (5 point likert scale)
 (mean, standard deviation, variance, range)
 Ratio Scale
 a scale that has absolute rather than relative quantities i.e.
income, sales, costs, market share
 possess an absolute zero point and interval properties
 (mean, standard deviation, variance + all lower level
descriptive statistics)
IMPORTANT – SELECTED READING 7.1
4-48
Tatang A Gumanti
 4-49
Tatang A Gumanti