Review of Thermodynamic fundamentals with reference to RAC

Laws of Thermodynamics
- Zeroth law, First Law, Second Law, Third Law
Heat & Work
- Sensible and Latent Heat
- Work relation
Thermodynamic Processes
- Isochoric, Isobaric, Isothermal, Adiabatic, Throttling
Thermodynamic Properties
- Internal Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy, specific heat
Thermodynamic Charts
- PV diagram, TS diagram, PH diagram
- TP relationship
Laws of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law

The "zeroth law" states that if two systems are at the same time
in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

thermal equilibrium ???

Heat transfer is zero, bodies have same temperature

First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is the application of
the conservation of energy principle to heat and thermodynamic
processes.
Any thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a
state variable called the internal energy (E). Between any two
equilibrium states, the change in internal energy is equal to the
difference of heat transfer into the system and work done by
the system
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a general principle which
places constraints upon the attainable efficiencies of heat
engines and the direction of heat transfer .

Kelvin-Planck: It is impossible to extract an amount of heat

QH from a hot reservoir and use it all to do work W . Some
amount of heat QC must be exhausted to a cold reservoir. This
precludes a perfect heat engine.

Clausius: It is not possible for heat to flow from a colder body to

a warmer body without any work having been done to
accomplish this flow. Energy will not flow spontaneously from a
low temperature object to a higher temperature object. This
precludes a perfect refrigerator. The statements about
refrigerators apply to air conditioners and heat pumps, which
embody the same principles.
 Heat Engine Refrigerator Heat Pump

T2 T2>Tatm T2 T2=Tatm T2
T2>Tatm
Q2 Q2 Q2

WE
E R WR P

WP
Q1 Q1 Q1

T1 T1=Tatm T1 T1<Tatm T1 T1=Tatm

WE  Q2  Q1 WR  Q2  Q1 WP  Q2  Q1
output
Efficiency  COP 
Desired .Effect Heat .Delivered
Input PF 
Work .Input Work .Input
WE Q2  Q1 Q1 Q1
E   COP   P.F 
Q2

Q2
Q2 Q2 WR Q2  Q1 WP Q2  Q1
Q1
P.F   1  (C.O.P) R  1
Q2  Q1
Heat
The energy transferred across the boundary of a system
because of temperature difference between the system and
the surroundings (Energy in transit).
Modes of Heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation
- Heat flow into a system is considered as positive and heat
flow out of a system is considered as negative.
Two types of heat are important from RAC point of view.
 Sensible Heat
 Latent Heat
Sensible Heat:

Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a thermodynamic system that

changes the temperature of the system.
for a given change in sensible heat content, all objects do not
change temperature by the same amount. Each substance has its
own characteristics relationship between heat content and
temperature.
The proportionality constant between temperature rise and change
in heat content is called the specific heat (kJ/kg).
For example: Heating of water from room temperature (25 - 100 ℃)
Latent Heat:
The energy absorbed or released by a thermodynamic system
during a phase change process in which temperature remains
constant.
- ice melting or water boiling
- solid turns into a liquid (melts)
- liquid turns into a gas (evaporates)

Temperature heat graph for water: 1 lb of water at atmospheric

pressure
 Thermodynamic properties

Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random,

disordered motion of molecules. it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on
the atomic and molecular scale.

For an ideal gas the internal energy is a function of the temperature only
 Enthalpy

For Gases

Since R is constant and u(T), it follows that the enthalpy of an

ideal gas is also a function of temperature only
 For Liquid
- Incompressible (density remains constant)

For Solids
Entropy can be viewed as measure of disorder or molecular
randomness.
For Ideal gas
For Real substances: water or
Refrigerant
Thermodynamic Processes

 Adiabatic – no heat transferred

 Isothermal – constant temperature
 Isobaric – constant pressure
 Isochoric – constant volume
 Throttling – constant enthalpy
PV Work Diagrams for an Ideal Gas

Work = Area under PV curve

 Isothermal
An isothermal process is a constant temperature process.
Any heat flow into or out of the system must be slow
enough to maintain thermal equilibrium
For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
Therefore, Q = W
Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as work
(W)
Isobaric
An isobaric process is a constant pressure process. ΔU, W,
and Q are generally non-zero, but calculating the work
done by an ideal gas is straightforward
W = P·ΔV
Water boiling in a saucepan is an example of an isobar
process
 Isochoric
An isochoric process is a constant
volume process. When the volume
of a system doesn’t change, it will
do no work on its surroundings.
W=0
ΔU = Q
Heating gas in a closed container
is an isochoric process.
 Adiabatic
An adiabatic process transfers no
heat
therefore Q = 0
ΔU = Q – W
When a system expands
adiabatically, W is positive (the
system does work) so ΔU is
negative.
When a system compresses
adiabatically, W is negative (work is
done on the system) so ΔU is
positive.
Process should be very fast
Summary of Thermodynamic Processes
Throttling Process
 Throttling is a flow-restricting
process that cause a significant
pressure drop in the fluid.
The pressure drop in the fluid is
often accompanied by a large drop
in temperature.
 Unlike turbine, they produce a
pressure drop without involving
any work.
 -Throttling devices are usually small and flow through them may be
assumed to be adiabatic, since there is neither sufficient time nor large
enough area for any effective heat transfer to take place.

- Also, there is no work done

- Even though, exit velocity is often considerable higher than inlet velocity, in
many cases increase in K.E is significant, also change in potential energy is
very small

Conservation of energy equation for this single-stream steady-flow device reduces to

 Phases of pure substance
 Compressed or Subcooled Liquid: Meaning that it is not about to vaporize.
(State 1)
 At this point water is till a liquid, but any heat addition will cause some of liquid
to vaporize. That is, a phase change process from liquid to vapor is about to take
place. A liquid that is about to vaporize is called saturated liquid. (State 2)
State 3 is referred to as a saturated liquid-vapor mixture
 Any heat loss from the vapor will cause some of the vapor to condense (phase
change from vapor to liquid), a vapor that is about to condense is called a
saturated vapor. (State 4)
 Once the phase change process is completed, we are back to a single phase
region (vapor), and further transfer of heat results in an increase in both
temperature and specific volume. Sate 5 (superheated) , if we further transfer
heat from vapor, the temperature may drop somewhat but no condensation will
take place as long as the temperature remains above 100 ℃.
T-V diagram for heating process of water at
constant pressure
P-H diagram (Mollier chart) S-T diagram
Saturated Temperature and Saturated Pressure
 The temperature at which water (substance) starts boiling depends on the
pressure; therefore if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.
 At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat
 Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure Psat

(100 ℃, 1 atm or 101.325 kPa); (151.8 ℃, 500 kPa)

 The temperature at which condensation starts is called dew point temperature.

 The temperature at which three phases exist in equilibrium is called triple
point.
At critical point there is no distinction between liquid state and vapour state;
these two merge together
Real and Ideal Behavior