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Kinetic
Energy
Mechanical
Energy
Observed Discharge in river
1200
1000
Discharge in Cumecs
800
600
400
200
Time
Streamflow or load
OF A
(m3/s or KW)
100%
% of time equaled
or exceeded
Streamflow (m3/s or ft3/s)
100%
% of time equaled or
No flow
exceeded
PERENNIAL STREAM EPHEMERAL STREAM
Generally there is incompatibility between the Load Duration Curve and the Flow
Duration Curve
% of time exceeded
Load Duration Curve
Flow Duration Curve
Regulation or control is needed to make supply pattern compatible with the
demand pattern
CORRESPONDING POWER IN
100%
% of time equaled or STREAM CURVE
exceeded
(Low Premium)
H = 25 m
Q = 600 ℓ/min × 1 m3/1000 ℓ × 1 min/60sec
Q = 0.01 m3/sec
= 0.83
E = P×t
E = 2.1 kW × 24 hrs/day × 365 days/yr
E = 18,396 kWh annually
P 10QH = 10(0.83)(6000)(100)
P 4.98 million kW = 4.98 GW (gigawatts)
E = P×t = 4.98GW × 24 hrs/day × 365 days/yr
E = 43,625 GWh = 43.6 TWh (terrawatt hours)
People = E÷3000 = 43.6 TWh / 3,000 kWh
People = 1.45 million people
(This assumes maximum power production 24x7)
25
India's first hydroelectric station (1897)
Shidrapong in Darjeeling (0.13 MW)
Power in the stream
t1 t2
Flow regulation is possible to the extent permissible by
availability of water, public policy and, of course, the load
requirement
Regulated Flow
LOAD DURATION CURVE
Load
exceeded Area under Load
at no time
Duration Curve is the
energy required over that
time period
Load (MW)
Peak Load
Load
Load required at 100% of time
exceeded
at all time
0% 100%
% of time exceeded
Load Curve - The
Maximum instantaneous power distribution of power
requirement or Peak load requirements over
time. When plotted on
a graph, time usually
depicted as the
horizontal axis and
load as the vertical
Load(MW)
axis.
time
LOAD CURVE
Area under Load curve is
Energy (MWh) and may
Maximum instantaneous power also be written as
requirement or Peak load MW(cont).
Integration is over the
same time period
MW(cont) is the total
energy supplied over a
given time period and is
expressed in terms of an
equivalent average
Load(MW)
(constant) load in MW
which results in the same
energy supply (MWh) as
actually realized over the
time same time duration
LOAD CURVE
PEAK LOADS ON ACCOUNT OF SHARP AND SUDDEN LOADS
Load (MW)
Load (MW)
% of time exceeded
PEAK LOAD
Average Load
Peak
Load
Load Curve Energy = 500 MWh
Pumped
Impoundment Diversion
Storage
45
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html
It uses water as and when it comes without
attempting to pond or store it.
62
Utilize rise in sea water level due to a tide.
During high tide, turbines generate power as
water flows from sea-side into the bay.
Water flows back to the sea during recession in
sea water levels (low tide) and generates power
provided another set of turbines in the opposite
direction are installed.
Turbines that generate electricity in either
direction are also possible.
500MW
Load(MW)
Load(MW)
Time (e.g. daily for a week) % equaled or exceeded
100%
100%
Plot between
% of Total Peak
% of Total Peak
v/s
% of Total
Energy under
% of Total Energy under Peak Peak
100%
Consider a hydro-plant with 100 MW installation
At peak it will serve 20% of the peak
12% of total energy will make the capacity fully
effective
Sum up to 12% of
total energy
Peak demand equal to 500 MW
100%
100MW
% of Total Peak
Which means
20%
12% 100%
Load (MW)
Energy wasted = 168000 – 75000 = 93000 MWh 50 MW
168000MWh
Load (MW)
50 MW
Energy reqd. = 168000 MWh
The same plant at a lower position
is able to use all the prime power
that is available in the stream
Required additional capacity and
another source
10 MW
50 MW
168000MWh
40 MW
FOR A GIVEN CRITICAL PERIOD:
A. On the Demand side:
1. Peak load
2. Energy under the peak (Area under the peak)
B. Supply side:
1. Dependable flow (prime stream power/energy
available)
That portion of the total installed capacity which is fully
effective or fully dependable
Or alternatively
NOTE:
Minimum stream flow at the time of peak load
Installation period
Pondage provided
Size and characteristics of the connected load
curve
Inter-relationships between existing plants
Load condition
Position on the Load curve
Dependable flow
In the critical week, let prime power
(energy) available in stream
= 100 MW (cont)
System demand (from Load studies)
Prime Power or Energy= 330 MW (cont)
System Peak Load = 500 MW
% of total energy demanded that is available
in stream
% of Total Peak
100%
= 100/330 = 30 % 50%
From the PP curve given, % of total peak that
encloses 100 MW(cont) of energy
30%
=50% 100%
% of Total Energy under Peak
Therefore, installation to be provided
= 0.5 x 500 =250MW and all it will be Firm
Capacity
System energy demand doubles to 660
MW(cont)
Assume peak load also doubles to 1000 MW
Prime power available in stream does not
change (obviously).
Also no change in
Dependable flow
Position on the load curve
For the scenario of doubled demand:
100 MW(cont)
70%
250MW
% of Total Peak
A 100 MW(cont)
50%
250MW
B
100 MW(cont)
70%
250MW
% of Total Peak
A 100 MW(cont)
50%
250MW
B
500MW 100%
100 MW(cont)
70%
250MW
B
% of Total Peak
A 100 MW(cont)
50%
250MW
B A
Available Head
Site 1 Site 2
Low Head & High High Head & Low Discharge
Discharge
100MW 250MW
Size of Forebay
Large forebay less losses due to fluctuation 250MW
Small forebay more losses 100MW
In general dependable
energy (prime power)
increases with dependable
flow.
Therefore, higher capacity
becomes firm.
Note: Dependable flow
increases with pondage but
only upto a limit as
illustrated.
Increase in Firm Capacity is
not proportional to increase
in prime power as illustrated
by the PPC
Head = 127.55 m
Efficiency, η = 0.8
Lf = 0.667
500 500MW
Q DEP (reqd.) (m3/s)
S1
400
400MW
W S W
300
R 300MW
R Streamflow/
200
200MW
Stream power
100
100MW
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T1
0 0 FULL
S1
EMPTY
State of
Reservoir
T1: End of dry season
T4-T5: Reservoir begins filling up
T2: Reservoir becomes full
T5: Reservoir is full again
‘W’ is waste/spill
T2 – T3 : Reservoir remains full
T3 : Reservoir release begins T5-T6: Full ‘R’ is reservoir release
T6 –T7 :Empties till T7 or T1
T3 –T4: Supply supplemented by
(Supply is dominated by release )
R =S
releases from reservoir
Average demand = 300 MW
=> QDEPENDABLE = 300 m3/s
500 500MW
Q DEP (reqd.) (m3/s)
S1
400
400MW
W S W
300
R 300MW
R Streamflow/
200
200MW
Stream power
100
100MW
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T1
0 0 FULL
S1
EMPTY
State of
Reservoir
T1: End of dry season
T4-T5: Reservoir begins filling up
T2: Reservoir becomes full
T5: Reservoir is full again
‘W’ is waste/spill
T2 – T3 : Reservoir remains full
T3 : Reservoir release begins T5-T6: Full ‘R’ is reservoir release
T6 –T7 :Empties till T7 or T1
T3 –T4: Supply supplemented by
(Supply is dominated by release )
R =S
releases from reservoir
i) Average demand = 600 MW
ii) Lf = 0.66
iii) Peak Demand = 900 MW
iv) System configuration: Equal Hydro and Steam
based mixed system
v) Installed Hydro capacity = 450 MW
vi) Installed Steam capacity = 450 MW
vii) For Hydro system:
Head = 127.55 m
η = 0.8
400
400MW
300
300MW
S2
200
200MW
QDEP=150m3/s
100
100MW
T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T1
0
T1 0 FULL
S2
EMPTY
State of
Reservoir
CASE I: HYDRO AT PEAK
Hydro at Base:
[Q > 405 m3/s]
(T2-T3) and (T4 – T5)
900MW
S(P)
H(I)
S(B)
100%
(T2-T3)
and
(T4 – T5)
S(P)
Lf =0.9
Flow =405 m3/s
H(B)
100%
S2 was required to maintain dependable flow of 150
m3/s in the lean season
Not much water being wasted inspite of a smaller
holding capacity.
This is on account of hydro operating at a much higher
load factor (= 0.9) during the ample flow season.
REGULATION IS CLEARLY FOR DEPENDABLE
FLOW AS WELL AS INCREASED HYDRO OUTPUT
w
400
R R 400MW
300
300MW
S2
200
200MW
QDEP=150m3/s
100
100MW
T3 T5
T4 T9
T2 T10 T1
0
T1 T6 T7 0
T8
S3 Additional
Storage
S2
(T1 –T2) &
(T9 – T10)
T8 –T9 (T2 –T3) (T3-T4)
(T4-T5), (T6-T7),
T5 –T6 (T7 – T8)
H
H
H
Cost of storage
Cost
S opt
Storage
INITIALLY, FOR ‘STAND ALONE’ HYDRO, REGULATION IS ONLY FOR DEPENDABLE FLOW
(CASE OF ALL HYDRO SYSTEM)
IT IS ENTIRELY POSSIBLE THAT WHEN THE SYSTEM EVOLVES FURTHER WHERE STEAM
BECOMES DOMINANT, THE DEPENDABLE FLOW REQUIREMENT MAY REDUCE
FURTHER AND TO A LEVEL WHERE DEPENDABLE FLOW REQUIREMENT IS LESS THAN THE
MINIMUM FLOW IN STREAM
REGULATION IN THIS LATTER CASE IS REQUIRED ONLY FOR MAXIMIZING CHEAP HYDRO
ENERGY OUTPUT
Cost/kWh
Steam
Hydro
0.3
Lf
Environmental Considerations
High-head hydropower systems with accompanying large storages can produce large
amount of power. However, large hydropower facilities, while essentially pollution-free
to operate, still are seen to have undesirable effects on the environment.
Dump Power
hydropower.org
Fossil - 62 %
Hydropower - 19 %
Nuclear - 17 %
Biomass - 0.9 %
Geothermal - 0.3 %
Wind - 0.06 %
Solar - 0.01 %
THERMAL = 89,276 MW (64 %)
HYDRO = 34,681 MW (25 %)
NUCLEAR = 4,120 MW (3 %)
RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES = 10,175 MW (8 %)
TOTAL = 1,38,252 MW
PEAKING SHORTAGE = 13.8 %
ENERGY SHORTAGE = 9.6 %
PROJECTED DEMAND BY 2012 = 2,06,440 MW
SOURCE: CEA
Wisconsin Valley Improvement Company, http://www.wvic.com/hydro-facts.htm
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
IEA.org
Canada, 341,312 GWh (66,954 MW installed)
USA, 319,484 GWh (79,511 MW installed)
Brazil, 285,603 GWh (57,517 MW installed)
China, 204,300 GWh (65,000 MW installed)
Russia, 173,500 GWh (44,700 MW installed)
Norway, 121,824 GWh (27,528 MW installed)
Japan, 84,500 GWh (27,229 MW installed)
India, 82,237 GWh (22,083 MW installed)
France, 77,500 GWh (25,335 MW installed)
“Hydroelectricity,” Wikipedia.org
Head
Water must fall from a higher elevation to a lower one to
release its stored energy.
The difference between these elevations (the water levels in the
forebay and the tailbay) is called head
Dams: three categories
high-head (250 or more metres)
medium-head (30 to 250 m)
low-head (less than 30 m)
Power is proportional to the product of
head x flow
http://www.wapa.gov/crsp/info/harhydro.htm
Major components of a
Hydroelectric Power Plant
Storage/Pondage
Diversion facility
Head works i.e. power intake, head regulator and de-silting chambers
etc.
Communication pathway for resident fauna
Head race tunnels/channels
Surge shaft/surge chambers
Pressure shaft/Penstock
Governing system and other control systems
Power house and transmission system
Tailrace channel or tailrace tunnel.
Large-hydro
More than 100 MW feeding into a large electricity grid
Medium-hydro
15 - 100 MW usually feeding a grid
Small-hydro
1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid
Mini-hydro
Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW
Either stand alone schemes or more often feeding into the grid
Micro-hydro
From 5kW up to 100 kW
Usually provided power for a small community or rural industry in
remote areas away from the grid.
Pico-hydro
From a few hundred watts up to 5kW
Remote areas away from the grid.
www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
Hydroelectric plants:
Run of River Projects with pondage have advantage of providing crucial peak power and
without need for large storages
149
Kaplan 2 < H < 40
Francis 10 < H < 350
Pelton 50 < H < 1300
Turgo 50 < H < 250
(H = head in meters)
155
Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series
of magnets inside the generator. Giant
magnets rotate past copper coils, producing
alternating current (AC) by moving electrons.
157
Generator
Transformer
Hydro Turbines
Governor
Controlling system and Protection system
Governor
Drainage system
Switchyard
158
Wisconsin Valley Improvement Company, http://www.wvic.com/hydro-facts.htm
Loss of forests, wildlife habitat, species
Degradation of upstream catchment areas due to inundation
of reservoir area
Rotting vegetation also emits greenhouse gases
Loss of aquatic biodiversity, fisheries, other downstream
services
Cumulative impacts on water quality, natural flooding
Disrupt transfer of energy, sediment, nutrients
Sedimentation reduces reservoir life, erodes turbines
Creation of new wetland habitat
Fishing and recreational opportunities provided by new
reservoirs
Environmental Benefits of Hydro
• No operational greenhouse gas emissions
• Savings (kg of CO2 per MWh of electricity):
– Coal 1000 kg
– Oil 800 kg
– Gas 400 kg
• No SO2 or NOX
Non-environmental benefits
– flood control, irrigation, transportation, fisheries and
– tourism.
162
Sudden Floods
Water Availability (Dependant upon Monsoon)
Loss of land under the reservoir.
Interference with the transport of sediment by the
dam.
Problems associated with the reservoir.
Climatic and seismic effects.
Impact on aquatic ecosystems, flora and fauna.
163
Land use – inundation and displacement of people
Impacts on natural hydrology
Increase evaporative losses
Altering river flows and natural flooding cycles
Sedimentation/silting
Impacts on biodiversity
Aquatic ecology, fish, plants, mammals
Water chemistry changes
Mercury, nitrates, oxygen
Bacterial and viral infections
Tropics
Seismic Risks
Structural dam failure risks
Established in 1998
Mandates
Review development effectiveness of large dams and
assess alternatives for water resources and energy
development; and
Develop internationally acceptable criteria and
guidelines for most aspects of design and operation of
dams
Highly socially aware organization
Concern for indigenous and tribal people
Seeks to maximize preexisting water and energy
systems before making new dams
Untapped U.S. water energy resources are immense
Water energy has superior attributes compared to other renewables:
Nationwide accessibility to resources with significant power potential
Higher availability = larger capacity factor
Small footprint and low visual impact for same capacity
Water energy will be more competitive in the future because of:
More streamlined licensing
Higher fuel costs
State tax incentives
State RPSs, green energy mandates, carbon credits
New technologies and innovative deployment configurations
Significant added capacity is available at competitive unit costs
Relicensing bubble in 2000-2015 will offer opportunities for capacity increases,
but also some decreases
Changing hydropower’s image will be a key predictor of future development
trends
Hall, Hydropower Capacity Increase Opportunities (presentation), Idaho National Laboratory, 10 May 2005
www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/pdf/hall_may10.pdf