Overview: Digestive System

• The GI tract (gastrointestinal

tract)
The muscular alimentary canal
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus

• The accessory digestive

organs
Supply secretions contributing to
the breakdown of food
• Teeth & tongue
• Salivary glands
• Gallbladder
• Liver
• Pancreas
2
The Digestive Process
• Ingestion
• Taking in food through the mouth
• Propulsion (movement of food)
• Swallowing
• Peristalsis – propulsion by alternate contraction
&relaxation
• Mechanical digestion
• Chewing
• Churning in stomach
• Mixing by segmentation
• Chemical digestion
• By secreted enzymes: see later
• Absorption
• Transport of digested end products into blood
and lymph in wall of canal
• Defecation
• Elimination of indigestible substances from body
as feces
3
Quantities of material processed per day:

1200ml water 1500 ml saliva

800g food

500ml bile
2000ml
1500ml gastric juice
pancr.juice

1500ml
8500ml
intest.secret intest. abs
350ml
colon abs

100ml water
50g solids
6
Nerves
• Enteric nervous system: the gut’s own
• Visceral plexuses within gut wall controlling the muscles,
glands and having sensory info
• Myenteric: in muscularis
• Submucosal
• 100 million neurons! (as many as the spinal cord)
• Autonomic input: speeds or slows the system
• Parasympathetic
• Stimulates digestive functions
• Sympathetic
• Inhibits digestion
• Largely automatic
8
 The Mouth

• Mouth = oral cavity

• Lining: thick stratified
squamous epithelium
• Lips- orbicularis oris
muscle
• Cheeks – buccinator
muscle

12
• “Vermillion border” or red
border
• Between highly keratinized
skin of face and mucosa of
mouth
• Needs moisture
• Note frenulums (folds of
mucosa)
• Palate – roof of mouth
• Hard plate anteriorly
• Soft palate posterioly
• Uvula

13
Functions of the oral cavity:
• Chewing (mastication)
• Taste (gustation)
• Digestion
• Lubrication
• Swallowing
• Speech
• Protection from harmful ingested substances
The tongue

• The body: free movable portion

• The base/root (radix): attached to the floor of the oral cavity and
forms part of the anterior wall of the pharynx
• It is divided by sulcus terminalis: ant & post
• Muscles:
• Intrinsic: vertical, transversal, longitudinal (s & i)
• Extrinsic: originate outside, mainly on mandible and hyoid, and pass into the
tongue
The tongue

• Lingual glands:
• The body: mainly serous
• The base: mainly mucous
• The tip: are mixed
• Papillae:
• Anterior & lateral: fungiform & foliate
• The base: circumvalate
• Taste buds: several thousands in tongue and palate & epiglottis
Tongue
• Mostly muscles
• Grip and reposition food
• Forms “bolus” of food (lump)
• Help in swallowing
• Speech – help form some consonants
• Note frenulum on previous slide: can be too tight
• Taste buds contained by circumvallate and fungiform papillae
• Lingual tonsil – back of tongue

17
Tongue and taste
Nerves of the tongue

• General afferent: branch of n.mandibularis (3rd. C.n. V)

• Special afferent, differentiate:
• Anterior :chorda tympani (c.n. VII)
• Posterior: glossopharyngeal (c.n. IX)
• Palate & epiglottis: vagus (c.n. X)
• Efferent to intrinsic muscles: hypoglossus (c.n. XII)
Salivary glands • The parotid:
• contains only serous cells
• produce a watery secretion, high amylase
• Stenson’s duct: vestibulum oris M2
• The submandibular:
• mostly serous, some mucous & mixed
• produce a weak amylase, contain lysozyme
• Wharton’s duct: caruncula sublingualis
• The sublingual:
• mainly mucous, some serous
• produce a particularly thick mucous
• Ducts: each gland opens beneath the tongue
Control of secretion

• Autonomic nerves:
• Sympathetic:
• Cell body in the gln.cervicale superior
• Stimulate a more transient effect
• Release noradrenalin -> vasoconstriction -> dry mouth when frightened
• Parasympathetic:
• Pregln.fibers in the branches of c.n. VII & IX
• Provide a stronger & long lasting stimulus
• Release: acetylcholine, subst.P, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
 Salivary glands
(tuboalveolar glands)

• Intrinsic salivary glands –

within mucosa
• Secrete saliva all the time to
keep mouth moist
• Extrinsic salivary glands
• Paired (2 each)
• Parotid
• Submandibular
• Sublingual
• External to mouth
Saliva: mixture of water, ions, mucus, enzymes
keep mouth moist • Ducts to mouth
dissolves food so can be tasted • Secrete saliva only right
moistens food before or during eating
starts enzymatic digestion
buffers acid
22
antibacterial and antiviral
Extrinsic salivary glands
• Parotids* - largest (think mumps)
• Facial nerve branch at risk during surgery here
• Submandibular # - medial surface mandible
• Sublingual + - under tongue; floor of mouth

+
Compound = duct branches
Tubo = tubes
# Alveolar = sacs
23
Teeth
• Called “dentition” (like dentist)

• Teeth live in sockets (alveoli) in the gum-covered margins of the

mandible and maxilla

• Chewing: raising and lowering the mandible and moving it from side
to side while tongue positions food between teeth

24
Teeth are classified according to shape
and function

• Incisors: chisel-shaped for

chopping off pieces
incisor • Canines: cone shaped to tear and
pierce
canine • Premolars (bicuspids) and
• Molars - broad crowns with 4-5
premolar rounded cusps for grinding

molar

Cusps are surface bumps

25
 Teeth
• Two sets
• Primary or deciduous
• “Baby” teeth
• Start at 6 months
• 20 are out by about 2 years
• Fall out between 2-6 years
• Permanent: 32 total
• All but 3rd set of molars by end of
adolescence
• 3rd set = “wisdom teeth”
• Variable
• Some can be “impacted”
(imbedded in bone)

26
 Tooth structure
• Two main regions
A. Crown (exposed)
B. Root (in socket) A
C. Meet at neck
• Enamel C
• 99% calcium crystals
• Hardest substance in body
• Dentin – bulk of the tooth B
(bone-like but harder than
bone, with collagen and
mineral)
• Pulp cavity with vessels
and nerves
• Root canal: the part of the
pulp in the root
27
Tooth structure
• Cementum – bone layer of
tooth root A

• Attaches tooth to
periodontal ligament C

• Periodontal ligament
• Anchors tooth in boney
socket of the jaw B

• Continuous with gingiva

(gums)
• Cavities or caries - rot
• Plaque – film of sugar,
bacteria and debris
28
PHARYNX
• A muscular tube, 12 – 14 cm long
• Extends from: cranial base – 6th cervical vert. and the lower border of
the cricoid cartilage
• Nasopharynx
• Opening of eustachian tube, tonsils
• Oropharynx
• Behind the isthmus faucium, above the epiglottis
• Triangular fossa with palatina tonsils
• Laryngopharynx
• Behind the choana, above the isthmus pharyngis
OESOPHAGUS
• A muscular tube about 25cm,
• It is constricted:
• At its commencement, 15cm from incisor teeth
• Where crossed by aortic arch (22.5cm from–id-)
• Where crossed by left bronchus (27.5cm –id-)
• As it transverse the diaphragm (40cm –id-)
• The top 1/3: surrounded by skeletal muscle
• The lower two-third: smooth muscle
• Both muscles are under the control of vagus
Pharynx
___oropharynx • Oropharynx and
laryngopharynx
___laryngopharynx • Stratified squamous
epithelium

• Three constrictor
muscles*
• Sequentially squeeze bolus
* of food into esophagus
• Are skeletal muscles
* • Voluntary action
• Vagus nerve (X)

31
OESOPHAGUS
• The upper esophageal sphincter (UES): (hypopharyngeal
sphinct/m.cricopharyngeus) thickening of circular skeletal muscle
• The lower esophageal sphincter (LES): the last 1-2 cm, not
anatomically distinguishable as a sphincter but the pressure is greater
than in the stomach
• A functional external sphincter provided by crural diaphragm, usually
the right crus
• Case: gastro esophageal reflux (GER)
Esophagus
• Continuation of pharynx in mid
neck
• Muscular tube collapsed when
lumen empty Esophagus___________
• Descends through thorax
• On anterior surface of vertebral
column
• Behind (posterior to) trachea

33
Esophagus continued
• Passes through “esophageal hiatus” in the diaphragm to enter
the abdomen
• Abdominal part only 2 cm long
• Joins stomach at cardiac orifice*
• Cardiac sphincter at cardiac orifice to prevent regurgitation (food
coming back up into esophagus)
• Gastroesophageal junction and GERD

___________________esophageal hiatus
(hiatus means opening)

35
 Microscopic anatomy of esophagus

Contains all 4 layers

(see right)

• Epithelium: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

• At GE junction – thin simple columnar epithelium
• Mucus glands in wall
• Muscle (muscularis externa) changes as it goes down
• Superior 1/3 of esophagus: skeletal muscle (like pharynx)
• Middle 1/3 mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle
• Inferior 1/3 smooth muscle (as in stomach and intestines)
• When empty, mucosa and submucosa lie in longitudinal folds 36
Esophagus histology

37
Chewing

• Movements of the jaw (temporomandibular joint) and the tongue

• Muscles involved:
• M.masseter (M)
• M.pterygoideus lateralis (PL)
• M.pterygoideus medialis (PM)
• M.temporalis (T)
• Mm.suprahyoid (SH)
• Mm.infrahyoid (IH)
Movements: Muscles:

• Elevation M, T, PM
• Depression PL, SH, IH
• Protrution M, PL, PM
• Retrution M, T
• Side-gliding M, T(c.l), P(i.l)
VENTRICULUS / GASTER (STOMACH)

• Rugae: folds present on the inner surface of the empty stomach,

flatten out as fills
• An additional oblique muscle layer present
• The muscle layers are not evenly distributed
• It is highly developed in the pylorus where it becomes a sphincter
which regulates stomach emptying
• The stomach is separated from the duodenal bulb by the pyloric
sphincter
VENTRICULUS / GASTER
Stomach
• J-shaped; widest part of alimentary canal
• Temporary storage and mixing – 4 hours
• Into “chyme”
• Starts food breakdown
• Pepsin (protein-digesting enzyme needing acid
environment)
• HCl (hydrochloric acid) helps kill bacteria
• Stomach tolerates high acid content but esophagus doesn’t
– why it hurts so much when stomach contents refluxes into
esophagus (heartburn; GERD)
• Most nutrients wait until get to small intestine to be
absorbed; exceptions are:
• Water, electrolytes, some drugs like aspirin and alcohol
(absorbed through stomach)

46
 Stomach
• Lies mostly in LUQ epigastrium
• But pain can be epigastric or
lower
• Just inferior to (below)
diaphragm
• Anterior (in front of) spleen and
pancreas
• Tucked under left lower margin
of liver dome
• Anchored at both ends but junction
mobile in between with
• Main regions in drawing to esophagus
contains
right-------------------------------- pyloric
• Capacity: 1.5 L food; max sphincter
capacity 4L (1 gallon) funnel shaped
47
48
Stomach Regions
• Cardiac region
• Fundus (dome shaped)
• Body
• Greater curvature
• Lesser curvature
• Pyloric region
dome
• Antrum
junction
• Canal with
• Sphincter esophagus
contains
pyloric
sphincter
funnel shaped
49
• Rugae: longitudinal folds on
internal surface (helps
distensibility)
• Muscularis: additional
innermost oblique layer
(along with circular and
longitudinal layers)

50
• Chief cells and parietal cells of gastric glands secrete
substances into the lumen of the stomach which combine to
make gastric juice
 Gastric Motility

• As food particles are reduced to a more uniform texture,

each peristaltic wave forces a contracted pyloric sphincter
open which allows only a small amount of chyme to move
into the small intestine
 Histology of
stomach
• Simple columnar
epithelium: secrete
bicarbonate-buffered
mucus
• Gastric pits opening into
gastric glands
• Mucus neck cells
• Parietal cells
• HCL
• Intrinsic factor (for B12
absorption)
• Chief cells
• Pepsinogen (activated to
pepsin with HCL)
• Stimulated by gastrin: a
stomach hormone

53
VOMITING (emesis)

• The forceful ejection of gastric contents, and sometimes duodenal

contents
• Part of the protective role from ingested toxic substances
• A reflex, usually preceded by nausea
• Start: deep inspiration glottis closure  esophagus distention 
soft palate elevation
 expiration against closed glottis with simultaneous contraction of
the abdominal skeletal muscles
VOMITING (emesis) controlled by:

• The center in the reticular formation (med.obl.)

• The chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) in the area postrema (in the
floor of the 4th ventricle near the vagal nuclei)
• CTZ is affected by:
• The opoid analgesics morphine and apomorphine
• Glycosides such as digitalis
• High concentration of urea (uremia) associated with renal failure
Motility of The Digestive Tract
• Skeletal muscle: mouth, pharynx, upper 1/3 of esophagus, external
anal sphincter
• Smooth muscle: in the remaining tracts, consist of two layers:
• Outer longitudinal coat
• Inner circular coat
• Two types:
• Phasic
• Tonic
Smooth muscle of GIT
• Phasic: contract & relax in a matter of seconds, present in: main body
of esophagus, gastric anthrum, small intestine
• Tonic: contract in a slow & sustained (mnts – hrs), present in: lower
esophageal sphincter, ileocecal sphincter, internal anal sphincter
• Action potentials are triggered in a few ‘pacemaker’ cells, which most
numerous in the longitudinal layer, then transmitted throughout the
muscle sheet
Control of secretion & motility
• Mechanisms: neural, hormonal & paracrin
Neural:
• Extrinsic: autonomic nervous system
• Intrinsic:
• Myenteric (Auerbach’s) plexus between longitudinal & circular layers,
control of GIT motility
• Submucous (Meissner’s) plexus, control secretion & blood flow
 Small intestine
• Longest part of alimentary canal (2.7-5 m)
• Most enzymatic digestion occurs here
• Most enzymes secreted by pancreas, not small intestine
• Almost all absorption of nutrients
• 3-6 hour process
• Runs from pyloric sphincter
to RLQ

Small intestine___________

60
• Small intestine has 3 subdivisions
Blood supply: superior
• Duodenum – 5% of length mesenteric artery;
• Jejunum – almost 40% Veins drain into hepatic
• Ileum – almost 60% portal vein

Duodenum is retroperitoneal (stuck down under peritoneum); others are loose

Duodenum receives
bile from liver and gallbladder via bile duct*
enzymes from pancreas via main pancreatic duct*

* 61
 • Small intestine designed for absorption
• Huge surface area because of great length
• Structural modifications also increase absorptive area
• Circular folds (plicae circulares)
• Villi (fingerlike projections) 1 mm high – simple columnar epithelium: velvety
• Microvilli

Absorptivie
cell with
microvilli to
increase
surface area
* & many
mitochondria:
nutrient
uptake is
Lacteal*: network of blood energy-
demanding
and lymph capillaries
-Carbs and proteins into blood to liver
via hepatic portal vein
-Fat into lymph: fat-soluble toxins e.g.
pesticides circulate systemically before
going to liver for detoxification
62
 • Intestinal crypts * (of Lieberkuhn) inbetween villi
• Cells here divide every 3-6 days to renew epithelium (most rapidly dividing cells of the body)
• Secrete watery intestinal juice which mixes with chyme (the paste that food becomes after
stomach churns it)
• Intestinal flora – the permanent normal bacteria
• Manufacture some vitamins, e.g. K, which get absorbed

-have many
Duodenal glands * *
mitochondri
a: nutrient
•Mucus to counteract acidity
from stomach uptake is
energy-
•Hormones: * demanding
-produce mucus
Cholecystokinin (stimulates GB to
release stored bile, also pancreas)
Secretin (stimulates pancreatic ducts 63
to release acid neutralizer)
Beda jejenum & Ileum
Jejenum :
1. Otot polos > tebal
2. Diameter > besar
3. Plica sirkularis >besar,
>banyak, >rapat
4. Arcade a. Jejunalis hanya 1
atau 2 tingkat
5. Vasa recta lbh panjang
6. Plaques payeri tidak khas
Ileum
1. Otot polos > tipis
2. Diameter > kecil
3. Plica sirkularis longgar
4. Arcade a. Jejunalis bersusun2
dan kompleks
5. Vasa recta > pendek
6. Plaques payeri khas
Peristalsis
67
 Large intestine
Digested residue reaches it
Main function: to absorb water and
electrolytes
Subdivisions
Cecum
Appendix
Colon
Rectum
Anal canal

68
 1. Teniae coli (3 longitudinal muscle
strips)
Three special 2. Haustra (puckering into sacs)
features 3. Epiploic appendages (omental or
fat pouches)

3.

2.

1.

69
 Colon has segments: ascending, transverse and descending colon; then sigmoid colon
Right angle turns: hepatic flexure* in RUQ and splenic flexure* in LUQ

*
*

Between
ileum and
cecum1st part S-shaped

Blind tube

Movement sluggish and weak except for a few “mass peristaltic movements” per
day to force feces toward rectum powerfully 70
Histology – large intestine
• No villi
• Fewer nutrients absorbed
• “Columnar cells” in pic =
absorptive cells
• Take in water and
electrolytes
• A lot of goblet cells for
mucus
• Lubricates stool
• More lymphoid tissue
• A lot of bacteria in stool

71
• Rectum
• In pelvis
• No teniae
• Strong longitudinal muscle
layer
• Has valves
• Anal canal
• Pectinate line*
• Inferior to it: sensitive to
pain *
• Hemorrhoids (enlarged veins)
• Superior to pectinate line:
internal *
• Inferior to pectinate line:
external
• Sphincters (close opening)
• Internal*
• smooth muscle
• involuntary *
• External*
• skeletal muscle
• voluntary
72
• Defecation
1. Triggered by stretching of wall,
mediated by spinal cord
parasympathetic reflex
2. Stimulates contraction of
smooth muscle in wall and
relaxation of internal anal
sphincter
3. If convenient to defecate
voluntary motor neurons
stimulate relaxation of
external anal sphincter
(aided by diaphragm and
abdominal wall muscles -called
Valsalva maneuver)

73
 The Liver
• Largest gland in the body
(about 3 pounds)
• Over 500 functions
• Inferior to diaphragm in RUQ
and epigastric area protected
by ribs
• R and L lobes
• Plus 2 smaller lobes
• Falciform ligament
• Mesentery binding liver to
anterior abdominal wall
• 2 surfaces
• Diaphragmatic
• Visceral
• Covered by peritoneum
• Except “bare area” fused to
diaphragm
75
 posterior

Fissure on visceral surface

Porta hepatis: major vessels and nerves anterior
enter and leave - see pics
Ligamentum teres: remnant of umbilical
vein in fetus, attaches to navel – see next
slide 76
77
Just some of the liver’s repertoire

• Produces bile
• Picks up glucose from blood
• Stores glucose as glycogen
• Processes fats and amino acids
• Stores some vitamins
• Detoxifies poisons and drugs
• Makes the blood proteins

78
Liver histology
• Liver lobules (about one million of them)
• Hexagonal solid made of sheets of hepatocytes (liver cells)
around a central vein
• Corners of lobules have “portal triads”
(see next pic)

79
• Portal triad
• Portal arteriole
• Portal venule
• Branch of hepatic
portal vein
• Delivers substances
from intestines for
processing by
hepatocytes
• Bile duct
• Carries bile away
• Liver sinusoids
• Large capillaries between
plates of hepatocytes
• Contribute to central vein
and ultimately to hepatic
veins and IVC
• Kupffer cells
• Liver macrophages
• Old blood cells and
microorganisms removed

80
81
Hepatocytes (liver cells)
• Many organelles
• Rough ER – manufactures blood proteins
• Smooth ER – help produce bile salts and detoxifies blood-
borne poisons
• Peroxisomes – detoxify other poisons, including alcohol
• Golgi apparatus – packages
• Mitochondria – a lot of energy needed for all this
• Glycosomes - role in storing sugar and regulation of blood
glucose (sugar) levels
• Produce 500-1000 ml bile each day
• Secrete into bile canaliculi (little channels) then ducts
• Regeneration capacity through liver stem cells

82
 Gallbladder*
• Bile is produced in the liver
• Bile is stored in the gallbladder
• Bile is excreted into the duodenum
when needed (fatty meal)
• Bile helps dissolve fat and
cholesterol
• If bile salts crystallize, gall stones
are formed
• Intermittent pain: ball valve effect
causing intermittent obstruction
• Or infection and a lot of pain,
fever, vomiting, etc.

* 83
Lies in LUQ kind of behind stomach
Is retroperitoneal
Has a head, body and tail
Pancreas
Head is in C-shaped curve of duodenum ( exocrine and
Tail extends left to touch spleen endocrine)
Main pancreatic duct runs the length of the pancreas,
joins bile duct

84
85
one acinus
Pancreatic exocrine
function
• Compound acinar (sac-like)
glands opening into large
ducts (therefore exocrine)
• Acinar cells make 22 kinds
of enzymes
• Stored in zymogen granules
• Grape-like arrangement
• Enzymes to duodenum,
where activated

86
Pancreatic endocrine function
(hormones released into blood)
• Islets of Langerhans (AKA “islet cells”) are the
hormone secreting cells
• Insulin (from beta cells)
• Lowers blood glucose (sugar)
• Glucagon (from from alpha cells)
• Raises blood glucose (sugar)

(more later)

87
Endocrine cells:

88
Abdominal and Pelvic Arteries
Review of some definitions….

• Peritoneum: serous membranes of the abdominopelvic cavity

• Visceral peritoneum: covers external surfaces of most digestive
organs
• Parietal peritoneum: lines body wall
• Peritoneal cavity: slit-like potential space between visceral and
parietal peritoneum
• Serous fluid – lubricating

90
New definitions
• Mesentery
• Double layer of peritoneum
• Extends to digestive organs from body wall
• Hold organs in place
• Sites of fat storage
• Route by which circulatory vessels and nerves reach organs
• Most are dorsal
• Extend dorsally from gut to posterior abdominal wall
• Ventral mesentery – from stomach and liver to anterior
abdominal wall
• Some mesenteries are called “ligaments” though not
technically such

91
Mesenteries
• Note dorsal, ventral and formation of retroperitoneal
position

92
Mesenteries
• Two ventral mesenteries
• Falciform “ligament”
• Binds anterior aspect of liver to
* anterior abdominal wall and
diaphragm
• Lesser omentum (=“fatty skin”) –
see diagram*
• All other mesenteries are dorsal
(posterior)

93
 Mesenteries continued (all these are dorsal)

• Greater omentum
• Connects stomach to posterior abdominal wall – very roundabout
• Wraps around spleen: gastrosplenic ligament
• Continues dorsally as splenorenal ligament
• A lot of fat
• Limits spread of infection by wrapping around inflamed e.g. appendix
• “Mesentery” or mesentery proper
• Supports long coils of jejunum and ileum (parts of small intestine)
• Transverse mesocolon
• Transverse colon held to posterior abdominal wall
• Nearly horizontal sheet fused to underside of greater omentum
• Sigmoid mesocolon
• Connects sigmoid colon to posterior abdominal wall

see next slides for pics… 94

Note mesenteries: falciform ligament, lesser omentum, greater omentum

95
Note: greater omentum, lesser omentum, falciform ligament, transverse
mesocolon, mesentery, sigmoid mesocolon

96
Some organs are “retroperitoneal”
• Are “behind the peritoneum”
• Fused to posterior (dorsal) abdominal wall
• Lack a mesentery
• Include:
• Most of duodenum (1st part of small intestine)
• Ascending colon
• Descending colon
• Rectum
• Pancreas
• Tend to cause back pain, instead of abdominal pain

(This is as opposed to the organs which are intraperitoneal,

or just “peritoneal”)

97
REGULATION of INGESTION
• Hunger includes two sensations:
• From the stomach: hunger contractions/pangs
• Associated with low levels of nutrients in the blood
• Alimentary regulation: concerned with immediate effects of feeding
on the GIT
• Nutritional regulation: concerned with the maintenance of normal
stores of fat and glycogen in the body
• Coordinated by: feeding & satiety centres
• Feeding centre: in the lateral hypothalamus
• Stimulation  hyperphagia
• Lesions  lack of appetite & progressive inanition (loss of
weight)

• Satiety centre: in the ventromedial nuclei of

hypothalamus
• Stimulation  complete satiety (aphagia)
• Lesions  voracious eating & obesity
• Operates primarily by inhibiting the feeding centre
• Appetite: a desire for specific food
• Control of appetite via higher centers including:
• areas in the amygdala where sensations of smell have an important role
• cortical areas of limbic system
Primitive Gut
• The primitive gut is formed during the fourth week as
the head, tail and lateral folds incorporate the dorsal
part of the yolk sac into the embryo.
• The cranial and caudal extremities of the tract is
derived from ectoderm of the stomodeum (primitive
mouth) and the proctodeum (anal pit)
• The endoderm of the primitive gut gives

• The muscular and fibrous elements of the digestive tract, and visceral
peritoneum are derived from the splanchnic mesoderm.

• The primitive gut is divided into three parts: the foregut, the midgut
and the hindgut, which are supplied respectively by three branches of
the dorsal aorta: the celiac artery, the superior mesenteric artery and
inferior mesenteric artery.
The foregut
• The derivatives of the foregut are the following:
• 1. the pharynx
• 2. the lower respiratory tract
• 3. the esophagus
• 4. the stomach
• 5. the duodenum
• 6. the liver and pancreas, and
• 7. the billiary apparatus
The midgut
• The derivatives of the midgut are the following:
• 1. the small intestines except proximal duodenum to point of
entrance of the common bile duct
• 2. the cecum and appendix
• 3. the ascending colon
• 4. two-third proximal part of the transverse colon
The hindgut
• The derivatives of the hindgut are the following:
• 1. The left one-third distal part of the transverse colon
• 2. the descending colon
• 3. the sigmoid colon
• 4. the rectum
• 5. the upper portion of the anal canal and
• 6. part of the urogenital system
 Formation Of The Gut Tube(1)
•Folding of somatopleure and splanchnopleure of a flat 12 day dog embryobody
folds
•The cranial,caudal and lateral flexures/body folds.
•Rapid growth of the cranial end results in enlarged head process.
•Lateral body folds grow downwards and ventrally towards midline.
 Formation Of The Gut Tube(2)

•Body folds(BF) consists of inner

splanchopleure and outer somatopleure. BF
meet in ventral midline forming inner
endodermal gut tube opened at the umbilicus

(pig)
The Intestinal Portal Tube
 Differentiation Of Gut Tube

Notochord MIDGUT
PHARYNX FOREGUT
Brain Amnion
Amniotic cavity

HINDGUT

stomach Pd

Cloacal plate

Bladder

D
Liver
Oral plate Heart
Cr. Ca.
Pericardial Yolk sac
cavity
V

Median section through 18 days gestation of pig

Differentiation Of Gut Tube
•Branching formpharyngeal,
foregut, midgut and Hindgut
regions. Each forms specific adult
organs.
•Pharyngealmost rostral forms
the pharynx and oesophagus
•Foregut
forms oesophagus, stomach and Pancreatic
cranial duodenum, the pancreatic Foregut diverticulum
and hepatic diverticula. Stomach
Mid gut
•Midgut and hindgut form the
intestines.
Gallbladder
Lungs

Hepatic Hind
diverticulum Yolk sac gut
Pharyngeal
Urachus Bladder

Cloaca
 Derivatives Of The Gut tube/Oesophagus
• Gut tube consists of three layers.
--inner epithelium(1) derived from
endoderm forms the different
functional cells of the mucosa of the 2
GI-tract. 2
--the hepatocytes of the liver and 1
3
secretory cells of pancreas.
--the middle layer(2) of mesoderm Epithelium 2
forms the stroma, supporting cells
and the striated and smooth muscle 1
of the muscularis propria. 2 1

--the outer layer(3) is mesoderm 3 2

and visceral peritoneum forms the
2
outer connective tissue 1
2
Muscle
3
Endoderm
Mesoderm
T.S. of oesophagus
 Morphogenesis Of The Gut tube

Morphogenesis of the gut involves processes of:

•Elongation by mitosis and looping
•Differential growth
•Herniation of part of the gut into the umbilical stalk.
•Rotation of several local regions of the gut.
•Histogenesis and functional maturation.
 Pharyngeal and Foregut region
Pharynx
(i).Pharynx and oesophagus.
•The short rostral tip of the pharyngeal region form
the pharynx
•The caudal part of pharyngeal region and rostral
foregut forms the oesophagus.
•Oesophagus elongates to match growth of
Bronchial
cervical,and thoracic and abdominal regions. Cr. bud
•Failure to maintain growth rate results in
a short oesophagus resulting in hiatal diaphragmatic Ca.
hernia which is pocketing
Oesophagus
of stomach between pleuro-peritoneal membranes

Schematic diagram of ventral view

of gut tube showing development
of pharynx and oesophagus
 D
dorsal cranial
Dorsal mesogastrium
Oesophagus B
ventral
First rotation 90o counterclockwise
Cranial-caudal along longitudinal axis

Duodenum
Cystic diverticulum caudal
Stomach
Hepatic diverticulum
A Second rotation 90o
counterclockwise on dorsoventral axis
Ventral mesogastrium

cranial C
D caudal

Completion of rotation
Stomach lies transverse
Ventral Morphogenesis Of The Foregut.
Pylorus Mesogastrium/
Fundus The Monogastric Stomach: The Dog
Lesser omentum

Duodenum
Differential growth, large fundus, narrow pylorus
E
Dorsal mesogastrium/fold of peritoneum from body wall forms
greater omentum
 Morphogenesis Of The Intestinal Loop
D
Ca Cr
• Long intestinal loop herniates
into the coelomic cavity of the V
umbilical cord.
• Abdominal cavity expands to
accommodate the intestine the
midgut returns to the body
cavity.
• Sequence of withdrawal of the
loop determines final position of(SmallAmnion
intestines)
Amniotic cavity Foregut Midgut Chorion
the intestines. Pharynx
Notochord
• Cranial limb returns first and
forms the small intestines
• Caudal limb follows and forms
part of the small intestine and
the large intestines
(Large intestines)
Brain
Yolk sac
Heart Herniated loop
 Morphogenesis Of The Foregut-hindgut
Derivatives and development of
the intestines in carnivores
•The distal foregut
-->develops into cranial
stomach
duodenum, liver, and pancreas.
•The midgut--> caudal
duodenum, jejunum. ileum,
caecum, colon (ascending).
•The hindgut-->colon
(transverse, descending),
cloaca.
Dorsal
•The cloaca--> rectum, bladder, Peritoneum aorta
urogenital sinus

(contains allantoic connection)

•Mitosis and growth of foregut
forms the intestinal loop. Morphogenesis Of
The Foregut-hindgut
•Gut tube is suspended by dorsal
mesentery through which passes
the cranial mesenteric
artery(CMA).
•CMA acts as axis for looping of
the intestines.
•Caudal limb forms a
diverticulum; the caecum.
•Hindgut forms distal
colon,rectum and cloaca.
•Intestinal loop enlongates, and
rotates twice(360o) clockwise
around cranial mesenteric artery.
 Development Of The Respiratory Diverticulum
A Foregut
(A).The L-T groove forms
on ventral floor, at level of
4th pharyngeal arch Tracheo-oesophageal
Laryngo-tracheal groove
Grove(L-T)
B
Pharynx Oesophagus
(B). L-T gives rise to larynx
Larynx D
and trachea
Cr Ca.
Trachea
V
Pharynx
C
Tracheo-oesophageal
septum Cr.
Trachea

( C ). Ca.
Bifurcation of lung Bronchial
bud , forms about 14 bud Oesophagus
bifurcations A and B, lateral view
C, ventral view
 RIGHT C
Ventral Views of branching of LEFT
trachea into principal Pharynx
bronchi and lobar bronchi
Trachea Principal
bronchi
Parietal pleura
Pleural cavity
Pleuroperitoneal
canal Visceral
pleura
Principal bronchi branch into Peritoneal
lobar bronchi cavity Cr.

Endoderm Ca.
D Trachea
Respiratory epithelium,
glands of trachea,bronchi, Principal
larynx and lungs Parietal bronchi
Mesoderm pleura
lobar
Cartilage,muscle,blood bronchi
vessels and connective
tissues of trachea
bronchi,larynx and lungs Viscera
pleura
 LEFT RIGHT
Cranial part of
Trachea cranial lobe
Species differences in lobes of lungs
B
Caudal part of
cranial lobe Minor differences
Right lung has four lobes in
Caudal lobe except the horse
cranial, middle,accessory
and caudal lobes
Left lung has three lobes
Accessory lobe Cranial lobe
Canine lungs
with cranial and caudal parts
and caudal lobes
Terminal
bronchioles Mesodem

C
Alveolar cells
Cr.

Terminal sac
Ca.
Terminal sac stage of lung development