|
  


    
Electricity is a type of energy, produced by charge that is either fixed ( static e.g. BATTERY ) or moving ( dynamic e.g. AC ). The main source of
electricity is electron. When these electrons are stored or moves, electricity is produced. As we concern with electronics, the most important
part is atom and its electrons.

These electrons flow along the m
m , is a material through which electricity passes freely or we can say that the material which has very
less opposition for electron flow is called m
m . The most common type of conductor is  or
 .

All materials are conductors of electricity to some extent. Some are much better than others. E.g. Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc.

Silver : it is better conductor of electricity, but it is too costly

Copper : it is most commonly used
Aluminum : it is used where light weight is very important.

       m
m  One of the most imp reason is presence of  m
 These  m
 are free to move and
this movement is called mm m


To understand this we must know ¢  m
.

All substances found in SOLID, LIQUID and GASEOUS state are called . This matter
is composed of small particles called  m. This molecule is again divided into small
particles called  . We can͛t see the atom by necked eye or simple microscope due
 to its too small structure ( 0.000 000 000 000 22 in ), but it could look like this:

   
   
   According to physics theory, atom is composed of
m consists of tightly bound
subatomic particles called  
and

. Proton is +vely charged and neutron is
electrically neutral i.e. chargless. Around the nucleus, there are m
. Electrons are
ʹvely charged. These electrons are arrange themselves in multiple . Sometimes
these orbits are called as .

This matter is classified into three divisions : Conductor, Insulator, Semi-Conductor.

Conductor : A substance through which current ( free electrons ) can flow easily is called conductor. These free
electrons decides the conductivity of substance.

e.g. Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc

Insulator : A substance through which current ( free electrons ) can͛t flow easily is called insulator.

e.g. Wood, Paper, Glass, Rubber etc.

Semi-Conductor : A substance which is neither good conductor nor good insulator is called semi-conductor.

e.g. Germanium, Silicon, Carbon etc.

Remember that only electrons are capable to move from one atom to another. This movement can produce current. There are two types of
currents 
( alternating current ) and 
( direct current ).

r


r
   
r   r




 

AC : The current whose magnitude and direction alternating at a definite time interval is called
alternating current.

e.g. Mains Current

In general, the AC voltage range is from 1.5 v AC to 240 v AC and up to thousands of volts.

Indicated by ʹ Fluorescent Tube / Bulbs / CFL etc.

DC : The current whose magnitude and direction remain fixed is called direct current.

e.g. Battery.

In general, the DC voltage range is from 1.5v DC to 24 v DC and up to hundreds of volts.

Indicated by ʹ LED / Miniature Bulbs / Special Purpose DC Lamps etc.

As a definition, a substance through which current ( free electrons ) can flow easily is called conductor. So in electrical or electronics the most
important conductor through which current can flow is  or one can say
 . As per the requirement, cable configuration, cable thickness
as well the insulation is also changed. There are various types of cable configurations, like :

This is three core, multistand wire. This is commonly used for IRON, SMPS, MIXI
etc.

This is co-axial cable and a type of screened cable. This is most common for TV
and DISH Antenna System.

This is dual core cable and a type of screened cable. This is most common for
AUDIO system

This is multi colored, multi core with insulator cable. This can be used in where
current flow is very low.

To measure the thickness of various cables, there are some special measurement standards ʹ

| : American Wire Gauge

 : Standard Wire Gauge, this is most common wire gauge measurement standard.
 SWG AWG

Gauge Inches MM Gauge Inches MM

20 0,0360 0,9144 20 0,03200 0,8128

19 0,0400 10,160 19 0,03590 0,9119

18 0,0480 12,192 18 0,04030 10,236

17 0,0560 14,224 17 0,04530 11,506

16 0,0640 16,256 16 0,05080 12,903

15 0,0720 18,288 15 0,05710 14,503

14 0,0800 20,320 14 0,06410 16,281

13 0,0920 23,368 13 0,07200 18,288

12 0,1040 26,416 12 0,08080 20,523

11 0,1160 29,464 11 0,09070 23,038

10 0,1280 32,512 10 0,10200 25,908

 ·

In electronics or electrical, fuse is a over current protection device. It is a metal wire or strip that melts at very high current flow. It is basically
made by zinc, copper, silver or aluminum etc. A fuse interrupts excessive current so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented.

Fuse consists of a metal strip or wire, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals and usually enclosed by a non-conducting case or so called
housing.    
 
  m   m
 
     m mm

Fuses comes in various types and sizes according to the application. The body of fuse is made by ceramic, glass, plastic or fiberglass.
 
 




 


    
 














   

"
#    


Single Pole Single Throw
!
 
Double Pole Single Throw      


Push to On or Push to Make $   

 !
     

Push to Off or Push to Break Single Pole Double Throw Double Pole Double Throw
 !  

Every component has some sort of opposition property which restrict to flow the electrons. That property is called as resistance of that
component. Resistance is the term used to describe a reduction in current flow.


m  m 

¢mm
 ¢

This resistance is useful in electrical and electronic circuits. Resistance make it possible to generate heat, control flow of electrons and supply
correct voltage to a device.

Resistance depends on four factors : Material, Length, Temperature and Cross ʹ Sectional ʹ Area.

! "
Some material offer more resistance than others. It depends on number of free electrons present in the material.

# 

As length of conductor increases, resistance is also increases.

$ 
In most of the material, as temp. increases resistance is also increases. But the thermistor is a component which has reverse
action.

%
& '
  ( &m
 (  )
This is Cross ʹ Sectional ʹ Area, that is large the wire small in resistance per foot of length.

We can measure the resistance by using DMM - Digital Multi meter, AMM ʹ Analog Multi Meter, Printed Value or by color coding i.e. color bands.

Unit : Represented by "|

Symbol : % this is called &"
i.e. we can measure the resistance in and the symbol of the ohm is %' There is special type of device which help to resist the current
flow up to certain limit as per or as we require, that device is called  &&*. Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0 %or
as high as 10 M.
!   ( 
·
 
 

0 ohm

1 ohm

10 ohm

100 ohm

1,000 ohm = 1 K Ohm

1,000,000 ohm = 1 M Ohm = 1000 K Ohm

 ! 


  is the most common component which has inbuilt property to   m
  ¢, that flow of current is maintained in the
electronics with   
 ( i.e. with the help of fix resistor ) or + 
m ( i.e. with the help of variable resistor ).

VVVVVVVV VVVVVVVV VVVVVVVV

VVVVVVVV VVVVVVVV VVVVVVVV

·)! 
 (* ! 
 (* ! 

Carbon or MFR Rheostat or Wire wound Resistor Potentiometer or POT

·) ! 
 are type of *
 or "·! ( Metal Oxide Film Resistor ). These are generally
used in the electronics circuitry. The value of these resistors are indicated by color bands
VVVVVVVV present on the component.
VVVVVVVV
(* ! 
 are type of again *
   type. These are generally used in the
circuit where the matched value is not available or the very low value is required. There
are various types of +   ¢m   ,  
m.
(* ! 

e.g. Potentiometer is used in AUDIO / VARIABLE PSU / TV Tuning Circuit etc. Basically
Preset, Trim pot or Multiturn
where the resistance variation is required according to user choice. In this potentiometer
as well as preset varies resistance rapidly and in the preset, trim pot or Multiturn resistor
varies resistance rapidly or slowly.

We can calculate
* or "- resistors value by using
* * code ( there are basically four different color bands ) or directly with DMM
( Digital Multi Meter ), where as variable resistor has -. 
m / on the cover. To calculate the value of fix resistor it is necessary to
remember the formula, that formula. To remember the formula, use the following sentence:

!+ reat rittan (ery ood ife

!
 Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands or rarely color dots. Each


 

( "  
-
.  color represents a number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands:

1. The  
 gives the  .

 0 1 2. The m
 
 gives the m
 .
3. The  
 indicates the
  0 .

 1 10 4. The   
 is used to shows the  
m of the resistor.
!  2 100
 3 1,000 ]
+ 
4 10,000
  5 100,000
Red : 2 Brown : 1
 6 1,000, 000 "
Violet : 7 Black : 0
(
 7 10,000,000 Orange : 1000 Blue : 1,000,000
i.e. : 27 x 1000 i.e. : 10 x 1,000,000
  8 100,000,000 = 27000 % ,10,000,000 %
 9 1,000,000,000 ,27 $ % = 10 " %
Siler : 10 % Tolerance Gold : 5 % Tolerance

  5% 0.1
/  10 % 0.01 Total : 27 $ % with 10 % Total : 10 "% with 5%
Tolerance Tolerance



 20 % ------

e.g. 1. Yellow Violet Red = 4700 ɏ = 4.7 k ɏ

2. Brown Black Brown = 100 ɏ = 100 ɏ
3. Brown Black Red = 1 000 ɏ = 1kɏ
4. Green Blue Orange = 56000 ɏ = 56 k ɏ
5 Green Blue Red = 5600 ɏ = 5.6 k ɏ
6 Brown Red Red = 1200 ɏ = 1.2 k ɏ
7 Black Black Black = 0ɏ = 0ɏ
8 Grey Violet Orange = 87000 ɏ = 87 k ɏ
9 Brown Black Green = 1000000 ɏ = 1 Mɏ
10 Red Red Red = 2200 ɏ = 2.2 kV
Those resistors can be combined in Series or Parallel and according to the combination , resistors are so called series resistor or parallel resistor

  ! 
 
   m

m 
  m 
 
m  1   
+ 
m 
 

e.g. R1 = 10 Ohm
R2 = 33 OHM

then R = R1 + R2͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙..Rn
Rn i.e number of resistors

So the formula becomes for the total resistance is as follows

R = R1 + R2
R= 10 ohm + 33 ohm
R = 43 ohm

So the total resistance is of 43 ohm

 ! 
 
   m

m 
  m 
 
m   

   
+

m

e.g. R1 = 10 Ohm
R2 = 33 Ohm

then R = R1 × R2 / R1 + R2
R = 10 x 33 / 10 + 33
R = 330 / 43
R = 7.6 Ohm

So the total resistance is 7.6 Ohm

ë   , !    ë  '(
         * 
 

ë  , !       '/
   
     *   
 *


 
! 
 " ) ·! 
' '"·!

This type of resistor is manufactured by using


2 ¢ with This type of resistor is manufactured by using "m *. on

as a binder. Then two leads of tinned copper wire are
m
 2 @ 900 ʹ 1100 ϶C . Then the 2 m+
inserted. Then the 2 m+

 is apply over the compound.

 is apply over the compound. After that 3
 is done
After that 3
 is done and resistor is ready to use. and resistor is ready to use.

These resistors are available in the range of 2 Ohm to 10 MOhm These resistors are available in the range of 1 Ohm to 10 MOhm
with 1/8, 1/4, 1 and 2 watts of power rating. with 1/2 watts of power rating.

|/  : 1. Very small size up to 6mm x 1mm

2. Very small weight
3. Available in the range of 1 Ohm to 10 Mohm
4. These are most suitable for high frequency circuits

 /  : 1. Atmospheric changes can affect their values

2. Limited current capacity, so wattage is limited upto 2 watts
3. Stabelity and reliabelity is poor
  
! 
0·)1

These types of resistors are made by winding a 4  on an 2 m
2. These type of resistors are available in the range of 0.01 Ohm
to 1 Mohm with 5 to 50 Watts of power rating. These are again subdivided into Fixed, Tapped, Adjustable and Rheostat.

|/  : 1. Low tolerance value up to 5%

2. High power rating
3. Easy to construct low value
4. Good stability and reliability

 /  : 1. Very big size

2. Difficult to construct high value resistor
3. Difficult to construct variable wirewound resistor because the working is not satisfactory
4. Not suitable for high frequency.

 
 01 This is variable resistor whose value can be changed easily. These are formed into various types
like ʹ Pot / Preset / Multiturn etc. The 2* is generally used as volume control and or tone
control in audio system. 2 is used for PCB mounting purpose and are of horizontal as well as
vertical positioning. "
is again used for PCB mounting and generally used where very
and precise value is required.

It has a circular strip on which carbon film is deposited. There is a rotating shaft which help to
move slider and change the resistance value from zero to maximum to the value of pot.

There are two types of carbon potentiometers : Linear and Log

 

In linear pot, resistance value is directly proportional to slider angle. These are basically used in
audio system.


0 m 1

In log pot, resistance value is not directly proportional to slider

angle but the resistance value can be increased or decreased by 1 /
10 / 100 / 1000 Ohm. These are again used in audio system where
high precision variation is required.

 2

It is a miniature type pot. This is basically used for PCB mounting

purpose. These are also in type of linear and log.
Apart from those resistors, there are some special types of resistors made for special purpose. Like ballast, PTC, NTC, Varistor, LDR, VDR



It is made by substance which has +ve temp coefficient property ( Nickel Iron Alloy ). In +ve temp coefficient, resistance increases with the
increase in temperature. So increase in magnitude of current flow, temp also increases, as temp increases resistance also increases. As
resistance increases magnitude of current flow decreases i.e. it stabilize the magnitude of current.

Vacuum 

Resistance Wire A resistor which is made by a substance, which has +ve temp coefficient property is
called PTC.
Glass Tube
In PTC, resistance increases with the increase in temperature. The better example is
thermistor or ballast resistor.
Mica


Base A resistor which is made by a substance, which has ʹve temp coefficient property is
called NTC.
In NTC, resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

(! 0 (
 1

It also known as VDR ( Voltage Dependent Resistor ). It has a property that, its resistance is controlled by magnitude of current. As magnitude of
current is high, the resistance is low. As OHM͛s law, Voltage is directly proportional to current, therefore Varistor is used to control the voltage i.e.
voltage fluctuation. So it is mainly used to control the voltage fluctuation.

!

It is Light Dependent Resistor, which resistance value is decreased as light ray strikes on it. It also called as Photo Sensitive Resistor. It is used in
street light, automatic door opening system etc. or any other electronic fun gadget.
Resistors produce voltage drop across the resistor when current flow through them, and different value of resistance produces different values of
current or voltage. The common characteristics of resistor is as :

    
33  4  m
 

m  
m
    !5

 m  m m
.

2
: +ve temperature coefficient

: ʹve temperature coefficient

In PTC resistance is directly proportional to temperature i.e. increase in voltage or temperature

causes increase in resistance causes decrease in voltage.

e.g. Thermistor used in FRIDGE

In NTC resistance is inversely proportional to temperature i.e. increase in voltage or temperature

causes decrease in resistance causes increase in voltage.

e.g. Timer Circuit


  : The percentage of change in the value of a resistor due to manufacturing defect or atmospheric
changes is called tolerance of resistor

 3 !   : Resistance of a peace of a material having a length of one centimeter and cross - sectional area of
one square centimeter is called specific resistance.


 !  4 The max current carrying capability of a resistor is called  ¢ 
 or    ¢ 
 and
is sometimes called   2 ¢ 
.

Unit : Watt
Symbol : W

There are three formulas to calculate power at various situations like

2 6 / Voltage and Current is known
2 6 /# 7  Voltage and Resistance is known
2 6 #  Current and Resistance is known
1. What is the resistors power rating when the voltage across it is 12V and the current flowing through it is 50mA?.

Ans Voltage = 12 Volts

Current = 50mA = 0.050A
Watt = ?

According to formula ,(ë

P = 12 volts x 0.050 A

P = 0.6 W

2. Calculate the maximum current that will pass through a 1.8Kɏ resistor rated at 0.5W.

Ans Resistor = 1.8 k = 1800 Ohm

Watt = 0.5 W
Current = ?

According to formula ,ë. !

Therefore I=яP/R

I = я 0.5 W / 1800 Ohm

I = 0.016 A = 16 mA

) 

A What is the power dissipated by a resistor for the following voltage and current values

1. V = 10 Volts I = 3 Amperes P = _____________________________

2. V = 100 Volts I = 5 Amperes P = _____________________________
3. V = 120 Volts I = 10 Amperes P = _____________________________
B What is power dissipated by a resistor given the following resistance and current values?

1. R = 20 Ohm I = 0.5 Ampere P = ___________________________

2. R = 560 Ohm I = 0.02 Ampere P = ___________________________
3. V = 1 Volt R = 2 Ohm P = ___________________________
4. V = 2 Volts R = 10 Ohms P = ___________________________

C The standard power ratings of resistors are 1/4, 1/2, 1,and 2 watts and more. What power ratings should be selected for
the resistors that were used for the calculations in problem B?

1. For 5 Watt = ______________________

2. For 0.224 Watt = ______________________
3. For 0.5 Watt = ______________________
4. For 0.4 Watt = ______________________

D 6 Volt is applied across the resistor and 5mA of current is required to flow through the resistor, then what is the value of resistor
and what power will dissipated?

According to ohms law R=V/I

R = 6 Volts / 5 mA = 6 / 0.005 = 1200 Ohm = 1.2 Kohm

According to Power law P = VI

P = 6 Volts x 5 mA = 6 x 0.005 = 0.030 Watts = 30 mWatts
   
  ·

"· : The special force which set flow of current in a circuit or conductor


  : The electrical status of a body which decide the direction of current flow.

+ve Potential : current flow from +ve ( body ) terminal to earth ( -ve )
-ve Potential : current flow from earth ( ʹve ) terminal to ( +ve ) body

 : i.e. Potential Difference. The current flow through a resistor or load set a difference of potential between two
terminals.

e.g. Battery

|  : Unit of current and symbol is A


m   m  

mm

m
8
 m
¢



1 coulomb = 6.28 x 10--5

So the formula is I=Q/t

I = Current Q = Charge ( Coulomb ) t = time in second

(
 : Unit of PD and EMF and the symbol is V

V=W/Q

V = PD or EMF or Volt W = Work Done i.e. Joules Q = Coulomb i.e. Charge

  
 m  
  
  
  
 
 m   
 mm 
 ,  
 2
¢
¢  
 ¢ 
 + 
  

To get the relation between Voltage ( V ), Current ( I ) and Resistance ( R ), there is a law called OHM͛s Law. According to Ohm͛s law, /  
m   
  m
 
 
+   
  
m. That means as voltage increases current is also increases but as
resistance increases current low decreases and as resistance decreases current flow increases.

So ( ë
 !

therefore (,ë!

(= Voltage or PD and the symbol is ( or 

ë = Current and the symbol is | or |
! = Resistance and the symbol is 6

By using Ohm͛s law, we can calculate value of Voltage, Resistance and Current. To remember this formula, Ohm͛s triangle is used.

To calculate Voltage V = IR
( To calculate Current I=V/R

To calculate Resistance R=V/I

ë !
    
&"7 

1. There is a circuit, where 10 volt is applied and pot is set to 10 Ohm. Then what will be the current.

Ans V = 10 Volts
R = 10 Ohm
I = ?

Ohm͛s law for current is I=V/R

I = 10 volts / 10 Ohm

I=1A

2. Imagine that, in the circuit 100 volt is applied and resistor is 10 KOhm. Then what is the current.

Ans V = 100 Volts

R = 10 KOhm = 10,000 Ohm
I = ?

Ohm͛s law for current is I=V/R

I = 100 volts / 10,000 ohm

I = 0.01 A
i.e. I = 10 mA
 (
   
&"7 

1. Suppose resistor is 100 Ohm and current across is 10 mA. Then what will be the voltage.

Ans Resistor = 100 Ohm

Current = 10 mA = 0.01 A
Voltage = ?

Ohm͛s law for voltage is V = IR

V = 0.01 A x 100 Ohm

V = 1 Volt

2. In the same circuit, suppose resistor is 157 KOhm and current across it is 17 mA. Then what will be the voltage.

Ans Resistor = 157 KOhm = 157,000 Ohm

Current = 17 mA = 0.017 A
Voltage = ?

Ohm͛s law for voltage is V = IR

V = 0.017 A x 157,000 Ohm

V = 2669 Volts

i.e. V = 2.669 KV
 !    
&"7 

1. If the voltage is 30 Volt and current is 3 Amp. Then what is the resistance.

Ans Voltage = 24 Volts

Current = 3 Amp = 3000 mA
Resistance = ?

Ohm͛s law for resistance is R=V/I

R = 24 volts / 3000 mA

R = 0.008 KOhm

R = 8 Ohm

2. If the voltage across the resistor is 229 mV and current will be the 18 mA. Then what will be the resistance.

Ans Voltage = 229 mV = 0.229 Volts

Current = 18 mA = 0.018 Amp
Resistance = ?

Ohm͛s law for resistance is R=V/I

R = 0.229 Volts / 0.018 Amp

R = 12.72 Ohm