Module 2: The Origins of Non-Hydrostatic Abnormal Pressures

Module 2: The Origins of Non-
Hydrostatic Abnormal Pressures

WE-014 Pore Pressure
TM
A b a lt S o lu t io n s
Copyright © 2008 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives
After studying this module, consulting other relevant documents and discussions with
your tutor, you will be able to:
• Familiarise with the principles of overburden effect on

abnormal pressures.
• Identify principles of aquathermal expansion and clay
diagenesis.
• Discuss the process of osmosis and evaluate their impact on
pressure differentiation.
• Identify how evaporite deposits and tectonics can influence
in the development of abnormal pressures.
• Recognise that to identify the cause of abnormal pressure is
generally a delicate matter, and calls for a sound knowledge
of the geology of the region.

Content
• The overburden effect

• Aquathermal expansion
• Clay diagenesis
• Osmosis
• Evaporite deposits
• Tectonics

The Origins of Non-hydrostatic Abnormal Pressures
Introduction
• By knowing the origins we can
decide best action when faced
with the resulting problems
during drilling operations.
• Abnormal pressures are
hydrodynamic phenomena in
which time plays a major role.
• Every occurrence of abnormal
pressure is governed by:
• the continued existence of
the reason for the
overpressure, and
• the effectiveness of the
seal.

The Overburden Effect (Undercompaction)
• When sediments compact

normally, their porosity is
reduced at the same time as
pore fluid is expelled.

The role of drainage in clay compaction

Terzaghi & Peck (1948):
• Where S  P 
• S: overburden pressure (or total stress)
• P: formation fluid pressure
 : pressure supported by the matrix (or effective stress)
S= P S=  +  P S=  

Additional load is Additional load is Additional load is
supported entirely supported by the supported entirely
by the fluid matrix and the by the matrix
fluid
Rubey & Hubbert (1959)

• He put forward an exponential function establishing a
relationship between porosity and depth under normal
compaction conditions:
  oe
cz
Where:
 : clay porosity at depth Z
 o : surface porosity (Z = 0)
• c: a constant, the value of the slope of normal compaction
(with  plotted on a logarithmic scale)

Compaction vs. depth relationships

• It is established by reference to wave propagation velocity in
clays and shales.
• Since porosity can vary from 80% to less than 10% over a 5
000 m interval, it is easy to see that the volume of water
expelled in this way is considerable.


• A reduction in clay porosity is accompanied by an increase in
bulk density.
• Normal clay compaction is the result of an overall balance
between the following variables:
• clay permeability,
• sedimentation and burial rate,
• drainage efficiency.


• The permeability of clay is very low, so that water cannot be
expelled immediately.
• For a given sedimentation rate, Kmin is the minimum
permeability that would permit compaction equilibrium to be
maintained.
• If permeability is below Kmin dewatering proceeds more
slowly, and abnormal pressure is created which lasts until
expulsion is complete.


• If sedimentation rate exceeds equilibrium conditions, a
greater volume of fluid has to be expelled and a higher value
of Kmin is needed to maintain equilibrium.
• Because permeability does not vary a great deal it is obvious
that formation fluid pressure will increase as a consequence.
Pore pressure intensity is dependent on the sedimentation

rate.


• Sedimentation rate is often greater than that which is
needed to allow dewatering of excess fluid.
• Abnormal pressure is very frequent in the following
environments:
• recent deltaic formations,
• passive continental margins and
• the accretion prisms of subduction zones
• The more recent the phase of active subsidence, the greater
the probability that pressure anomalies will be encountered.
• The probability of abnormal pressure existing increases with
the thickness of clay intervals where draining layers of sand
or silt are absent.


• The presence of drains within the argillaceous series is an
essential factor governing abnormal pressure.
• The magnitude of the abnormal pressure is related to the
ratio of sand to clay in the sedimentary series.


• This mechanism is the same as that for a fluid to migrate
towards zones of lower resistance to flow.
• As expulsion rate is at a maximum close to drains, the early
stages of this process lead to compaction in the immediately
adjacent clay beds.
• The resulting reduction in porosity and permeability retards
further fluid expulsion.

The role of drainage in clay
compaction
• The fluid pressure during
the compaction process
in the clay further away
from the drain is
probably higher .
• The increases in
formation pressure are
sometimes insufficient to
explain certain pressure
anomalies.

Summary
• The overburden effect is defined as the result of the action
of subsidence on the interstitial fluid pressure of a formation.
• If fluids can only be expelled with difficulty relative to burial
conditions, they must support all or part of the weight of
overlying sediments.
• Porosity decreases less rapidly than it should with depth, and
clays are then said to be undercompacted.
• Formation pressure intensity is controlled as much by the
rate of subsidence as by the dewatering efficiency.
• Imbalance between these two factors is the most frequent
cause of abnormal pressure.

Aquathermal Expansion
Aquathermal pressuring Aquathermal expansion only
• It is a consequence of the has an effect if:
expansion of water due to • the environment is
thermal effects in a closed completely isolated,
environment.
• pore volume is constant,
• If a body of water is raised in
temperature its volume
• the rise in temperature
increases. takes place after the
environment is isolated
• If the water is in a hermetically
sealed environment, its
pressure rises.
• The extent of the rise in
pressure depends not only on
the rise in temperature but
also on the density of the
water.

Objections against thermal origins of overpressure due to

the expansion of water:
• Completely impervious formations are rare.
• Transition zones, which correspond to a gradual shift from
hydrostatic to abnormal pressure, reflect true hydraulic
transmissivity through clays.
• A rise in temperature reduces viscosity and makes fluid
easier to expel.

Summary
• It is an effect producing increased pressure in sedimentary
sequences due to a temperature rise in a closed system.
• The effect is governed not only by thermal conditions and
water density, but more particularly by the permeability of
the environment and the time factor.
• Its overall contribution is therefore not easy to quantify.

Clay Diagenesis
Mineralogy
• Argillaceous minerals form part of the phyllosilicates group
(the sheet or lattice-layer silicates).
• They are characterised by alternately arranged sheets of
T2O5 tetrahedra (where T = Si, Al or Fe3+) and octahedra.
• The simplest clay mineral:
Al2Si4O10 OH  2
• Pyrophyllite:

Clay Diagenesis
Mineralogy
• The structure of pyrophyllite is electrically neutral.
• Substitution of Si4+ cations in the tetrahedral layer by Al3+
creates a negative charge which is compensated by the
adsorption of cations and interlayer water.
• This new structural type is characteristic of, for instance,
montmorillonite (smectite family).
• A strong cation exchange capacity, or water adsorption
capacity, gives this type of clay its swelling-behaviour on
contact with water.

Clay Diagenesis
Smectites
 Si4x Alx  O10 Al 2xR2x  OH 2ECxnH2O
• R2+ = Mg, Fe, Mn, Cr etc.
• EC = exchangeable cations
• Further substitution of Si4+ cations by Al3+ increases the
electrical imbalance.
• The clay loses its capacity to adsorb water and may
gradually change to another type of mineral, Illite, which
belongs to the mica family.
K y Al4  Si8 yAly  O20 OH 4
with 1 < y < 1.5

Clay Diagenesis
Kaolinite
• It is a purely aluminous variety like pyrophyllite, with the
difference that its structure is asymmetric and its
interreticular distance is 0.71 nM.
• It has better thermodynamic stability than the smectites.
• Relative percentages of the two types of mineral may vary
considerably, and they may alternate in a regular or random
fashion.

Diagenetic Processes
Variations in argillaceous
minerals
• As depth increases smectite
and mixed layer clays
gradually give way to illite.

Variations in argillaceous minerals

• The release of interlayer water from smectites is due to the
combined effects of temperature, ionic activity and, to a
lesser extent, pressure.
• The amount of interlayer water released is dependent on the
adsorption capacity of the smectites.
• This varies according to their composition.
• As smectite gradually changes to illite, adsorbed water is
expelled in the form of free water.
• This addition to the pore water can help to generate
additional abnormal pressure.



Chemical composition of the system

• It can also influence the process.
• A very high concentration of K± cations would favour
illitization at shallow depths.
• Any scarcity would retard the process and maintain the
interstratified layers to greater depths.
• There is a debate about how much water gets expelled:
• Powers says 1.4 g . cm-3.
• Burst and Magara prefer 1.15 g . cm-3.
• This increased volume was the cause of many instances of

abnormal pressure in cases where the water could not
escape.

Uncertainties about the process

1. the quantity of water adsorbed onto the clay sheets,
2. its density, and
3. the temperature range needed for dehydration.
• The release of water contribute significantly to the creation of
abnormal pressure.
• It occurs at high temperatures, and at considerable depths where
the capacity for water expulsion under the influence of the
overburden is reduced.
• Abnormal pressure retards dewatering and increases salinity,

tending to alter the diagenetic process by comparison with an
unsealed environment.
• Clay diagenesis is a secondary cause to abnormal pressure!

Osmosis
Definition
• It is the spontaneous
movement of water through a
semi-permeable membrane
separating two solutions of
different concentration (or one
solution and water) until the
concentration of each solution
becomes equal, or until the
development of osmotic
pressure prevents further
movement from the solution of
lower concentration to that of
higher concentration.

Osmosis
Osmotic pressure
• It is virtually proportional to the concentration differential.
• For a given differential it increases with temperature.
Reference:
• http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=NUR4004

Osmosis
Dependent Factors
• The flow of water through a clay bed is dependent on:
• differential pressure,
• differential concentration,
• differential electrical potential,
• temperature.
• We should also add:
• the thickness of the clay,
• the size of the micropores and
• the degree of fissuring.

Osmosis
Water migration
• In a closed environment, the
migration of water towards a
reservoir with higher salinity
tends to increase pressure in
that reservoir until differential
pressure is equal to osmotic
pressure.
• Differential pressure can

exceed 246 kg/cm2 (3500 psi).
• This is enough to cause

formation pressure to exceed
overburden pressure.

Osmosis
Reverse osmosis
• It consists of the migration of water from strongly saline
areas towards areas of weaker salinity under the influence of
a pressure differential.
• It is possible that in certain sedimentary basins fluid flows
generated by compaction and gravity may be either
accentuated or attenuated by the effects of osmosis or
reverse osmosis.

Osmosis
Summary
• Although laboratory tests have proven that osmotic effects
are real, the evidence for their existence in nature is far less
certain.
• The capacity for osmosis to generate abnormal pressure is
limited to:
• Sharply contrasting salinity,
• Proximity to salt-domes, and
• Lenticular series.
• In most instances of abnormal pressure, the role of osmosis
is difficult to prove and must be thought of as minor.

Evaporite Deposits
Roles of Evaporite Deposits in Abnormal Pressures:

• a passive role, ie. as a seal
• an active role, ie. as a pressure generator (diagenetic
processes).
Passive role
• Evaporites are totally impermeable.
• They are almost perfect seal.
• Because of their inherent plasticity they also have a degree of mobility,
and any fractures which occur can repair themselves.
• This is especially true of rock salt (halite).

Evaporite Deposits
Passive role (Sealing)

• During sedimentation, it is a barrier to vertical expulsion of
fluid from underlying sediments.
• If lateral hydraulic conductivity is insufficient for adequate
horizontal drainage, the overburden effect will continue to
increase and may bring about abnormal pressure in
reservoirs and clays alike.
• On the regional scale this mobility can jeopardize the

effectiveness of the seal.
• Mobility is the underlying cause of salt diapirism, causing salt
migration and resulting in salt withdrawal structures which, if
complete, act like the holes in a sieve.

Evaporite Deposits
Pressure Generation: Sulfate Diagenesis

• Gypsum (CaSO4, 2H20) is the only precipitated form of CaSO 4 in
areas of sedimentation.
• Transformation into anhydrite or hemihydrate occurs at a very
early stage in the burial process.
CaSO4, 2H2O (gypsum) CaSO4 (anhydrite

)  H2O
1 3
CaSO4, 2H2O (gypsum) CaSO4, H2O (hemihydrit
e)  H2O
2 2
• At standard temperatures and pressures, anhydrite is stable
above 40°C. Gypsum is stable below that temperature.
• When gypsum is transformed to anhydrite, up to 38 % of the
original volume of water is released.
• Abnormal pressure may develop if this fluid cannot be expelled.

Evaporite Deposits
Summary
• The sealing efficiency of evaporite deposits plays a major
role in the generation and maintenance of abnormal
pressure.
• Undercompaction is likely to occur in interlayered or
underlying argillaceous series.
• It is also possible for abnormal pressure to develop in badly
drained reservoirs (which are often carbonate in nature) due
to their association with evaporites.
• Although diagenetic processes cause a significant increase
in water volume, the part they play in the creation of
abnormal pressure remains to be proven, but is probably
only marginal.

Organic Matter Transformation
The role of hydrocarbons after their migration and trapping:

• At shallow depths organic matter is broken down by bacterial
action, generating biogenic methane.
• In a closed environment the resulting expansion can lead to
abnormal pressure.
• Since it is rare for a good seal to exist at such shallow
depths, the gas usually diffuses to the surface.
• Trapped gas pockets can be a real threat to offshore drilling
due to the absence of BOP's in top-hole, but can usually be
revealed by high resolution seismic techniques.

Thermochemical generation
• The cracking process creates
hydrocarbons and also produces
light hydrocarbons from heavy
ones.
• This increases the total number
of molecules, and the volume
they occupy.
• For “open” environment, no
increase in pressure occurs.
• For “closed” or “semi-closed”
environment, it can cause
pressure to rise.
• It depends on the degree to
which the environment is
Thermochemical generation confined and the final nature of
proceeds at an increasing rate as the hydrocarbon product.
temperature rises.

Gas migration
• As compaction proceeds and less water is expelled,
decomposing organic matter tend to cause the water to
become saturated in gas and eventually produce free gas.
• If this gas is unable to escape it causes abnormal pressure.
• Pressure anomalies and undercompaction due simply to the

overburden effect is magnified if gaseous hydrocarbons are
generated at the same time.
• Undercompacted clay zones often have a high gas content.

• This suggests that cracking of the organic matter makes a
contribution to abnormal overburden pressure.

Summary
• Over and above the fact that undercompaction is often
accompanied by gas shows rich in heavy components,
thermal cracking of organic matter can be a cause of
abnormal pressure.
• It can develop in either shaly sand series or carbonate
series, provided organic matter is present and the system is
sufficiently confined.

Tectonics
Tectonic stress
• Where deformations occur due to tectonic stress, they cause
modifications in fluid pressures and in the distribution of
masses.
• This may create positive pressure anomalies or restore
pressure to normal.
• tectonic activity causes rock deformations which have a direct or

indirect effect on fluid pressure distribution;
• to a greater or lesser extent fluid pressure alters the way in
which deformations develop as a result of stress.

Tectonics
Relief and Structuring

• Changes in formation relief and geometry are a direct cause
of pressure redistribution.
• Relief induces hydrodynamic activity, which in turn is an
underlying cause of some of the pressure anomalies
observed.
Palaeopressures
• Deep-lying series may be uplifted and part of the overlying
strata then eroded.
• In this way zones of high pressure could be brought closer to
the surface, which would make them appear anomalous.

Tectonics
Reorganising of Stress Fields

• The effect of tectonic activity is to modify the force and direction of the
stress field.
• Sediments are subjected to the overburden stress of their own weight and
also to tectonic stress.
• If fluids are able to escape, compaction is likely to be faster than under the
influence of burial only.
Tectonic action effects

• Tectonic action can set up stresses so rapidly that fluid
expulsion is hampered, and this can generate overpressure.
• Hydraulic fracturing may, however, ensue, dispersing wholly
or partially any pressure anomalies thus created.

Tectonics
Overthrust zones
• Some abnormal pressures are associated with overthrust faulting.
• Fluids at high pressure and temperature act as a lubricant for the
movement of the overthrust block.
• Rapid loading occurs, causing abnormal pressure in underlying
confined sequences.
Overthrust zones effects

• They will depend on:
• the thickness of the nappe and
• the degree of hydrodynamic confinement within the sequences
beneath the overthrust.

Tectonics
Faults and Fractures

• The effect which faults have on fluid pressure distribution
depends on:
• whether they form an effective seal or on the contrary act as a
drain,
• how they displace reservoirs and sealing strata,
• the original distribution of sealing and reservoir sequences

Tectonics
Normal Faults
• They are the result of a stress field where S1 is vertical and
S3 is horizontal.
• As they tend to be open, they are often effective drains, and
provide links between reservoirs which help to equalise
pressure gradients.
• In the presence of saturated fluids the fault plane becomes a
site for premature crystallization of calcite, quartz, anhydrite
or dolomite, none of which is very permeable.
• If this happens faults will act as a barrier or seal to a
reservoir.

Tectonics
Reverse Faults
• They are the result of a stress field where S1 is close to
horizontal and S3 nearly vertical and are thus more likely to
be closed.
• They tend to be a barrier to fluid circulation.
Tear Faults
• They are the result of a stress field where S 1 and S3 are horizontal and S2 is
vertical.
• As with normal faults, whether they act as barrier or drain depends on
whether there is syntectonic mineral crystallization.
• Their impact is affected by the relative displacement of the compartments on
either side of the fault.

Tectonics
Fault Displacement
• It is an essential factor in the distribution of fluid pressure.
• If a fault is to isolate a section of reservoir, it needs to
displace its walls in such a way as to bring the porous layer
into contact with an impervious zone.
• If the movement brings reservoirs into contact at some
point, pressure conditions in the two compartments will
equalise.
• Major faults create fracture corridors or zones which act as a

drain as long as the fractures are not sealed by
mineralisation.

Tectonics
Joints
• They are fractureswith little or no displacement.
• They are capable of depriving impervious rocks of their
ability to act as a seal.
• Fracture intensity depends on:
• the stress field (ie. the type of tectonic activity) and
• the mechanical behaviour of the layers.
• Overpressure may be laterally induced by the juxtaposition,
by fault movement, of formations with different pressure
regimes.

Tectonics and sedimentation
Deltaic areas
• The development of a delta depends on:
• the balance between sedimentation rate,
• subsidence rate and
• eustatic variations in the sea level.
• It is possible to observe:
• a proximal zone, where growth faults will develop preferentially,
• a distal zone with shale domes and ridges

Growth Faults
• They are known as synsedimentary or listric faults.
• This plane is nearly vertical in its upper part, then tends
gradually to conform to the dip of the strata as its slope
decreases towards its base.
• The downstream compartment displays thickening of the
sediments in the form of a "roll-over" (compensation
anticline) near the fault

Residual Shale Mass
• The base of the updip compartment of growth faults often

includes a ridge of undercompacted shale (residual shale
mass) resulting from differential compaction.
• The preferential site for hydrocarbon accumulation is the roll-
over structure of the downdip compartment against the fault.

Shale Diapirism
• Shale domes are the result of intrusive flow from underlying
layers (shale diapirism).
• They are always undercompacted, and therefore abnormally
pressured.

Shale Diapirism Process:
• Palaeopressure due to uplifting
previously deep-lying
formations to shallower depths
(A),
• confinement of pierced layers
(B),
• isolated “rafts” on the top of
the diapir (C).
• pressure transfer from the
undercompacted clays to the
pierced reservoirs (D),
• osmotic effects due to raised
salinity in the water of
formations close to the salt
dome (E).

Subduction Zones
• Argillaceous sediments are often buried rapidly in
geosynclinal zones and in subduction zones where two
tectonic plates converge.
• Undercompacted argillaceous layers are favourable to the
development of overlying deformation because they act as
lubricants, amplifying the movement.

Summary
• Tectonics and fluid pressures interact to give a variety of
effects.
• Tectonic mechanisms:
• Extension  open fractures  pressure dissipation
• Compression:
• easy expulsion of fluids  compaction  normal pressure
• difficult expulsion  undercompaction  abnormal pressure
compaction  possible hydraulic fracturing  expulsion 
compaction

Carbonate Compaction
• Carbonates do not undergo the effects of undercompaction

seen in clays and shales.
• Chalk is an exception.
• It is made up of coccoliths which tend to take up a horizontal
arrangement during compaction.
• These pelagic carbonates are deposited slowly, and their
initial porosity is around 70 %.
• This porosity is gradually reduced to a value of between 5 and
10 % at 3 000 m.
• Very thick chalk deposits may develop undercompaction
because of their low permeability.

• When porosity declines to 35 %

or less, mechanical compaction
is replaced by -chemical
compaction.
• At this stage the coccoliths
dissolve at their points of
contact and CaCO3 is
precipitated in the pore spaces.
• This results in a reduction of
porosity and permeability.

Permafrost
• It is when water changes into ice and its volume increases.
• Water contained in surface sediments of permafrost regions
is frozen, but in certain conditions, pockets of ground
surrounded by permafrost can exist in an unfrozen state.
• Such pockets are known as taliks.

Summary
• This account of the various ways in which abnormal pressure
can arise.
• Time is the determining factor in fluid dispersal, which
explains why abnormal pressure is more commonly found in
association with young sediments.
• High pressure may result from a combination of various
causes, and these are more likely to be found in clay-
sandstone sequences because of the mechanical, physical
and chemical properties of clays.
• The lithological changes which some of the causes bring
about can be used for detection purposes during drilling
operations.

So far…
After studying this module, you will be able to :

• Familiarise with the principles of overburden effect on
abnormal pressures.
• Identify principles of aquathermal expansion and clay
diagenesis.
• Discuss the process of osmosis and evaluate their impact on
pressure differentiation.
• Identify how evaporite deposits and tectonics can influence
in the development of abnormal pressures.
• Recognise that to identify the cause of abnormal pressure is
generally a delicate matter, and calls for a sound knowledge
of the geology of the region.

Module 2: The Origins of Non-Hydrostatic Abnormal Pressures

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Module 2: The Origins of Non-

Hydrostatic Abnormal Pressures

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• Familiarise with the principles of overburden effect on

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• The overburden effect

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• When sediments compact

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

S= P S=  +  P S=  

Rubey & Hubbert (1959)

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Compaction vs. depth relationships

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

Pore pressure intensity is dependent on the sedimentation

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

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The role of drainage in clay compaction

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Objections against thermal origins of overpressure due to

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• The simplest clay mineral:

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Variations in argillaceous minerals

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Variations in argillaceous minerals

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Variations in argillaceous minerals

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Chemical composition of the system

• This increased volume was the cause of many instances of

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Uncertainties about the process

• Abnormal pressure retards dewatering and increases salinity,

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Copyright © 2008 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved.

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• Differential pressure can

• This is enough to cause

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Roles of Evaporite Deposits in Abnormal Pressures:

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