Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials-Strain Transformation 2

10.
Strain Transformation
10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES
• We measure the normal strain in a tension-test
specimen using an electrical-resistance strain
gauge.
• For general loading on a body, the normal strains at
a pt are measured using a cluster of 3 electrical-
resistance strain gauges.
• Such strain gauges, arranged in a specific pattern
are called strain rosettes.
• Note that only the strains in the plane of the gauges
are measured by the strain rosette. That is ,the
normal strain on the surface is not measured.
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10. Strain Transformation
• Apply strain transformation
Eqn 10-2 to each gauge:
 a   x cos 2  a   y sin 2  a   xy sin  a cos  a

 b   x cos b   y sin b   xy sin b cos b
2 2
 c   x cos 2 c   y sin 2 c   xy sin c cos c 10 - 16
• We determine the values of x, y xy by solving the

three equations simultaneously.

• For rosettes arranged in the 45
pattern, Eqn 10-16 becomes
 x  a
 y  c
 xy  2 b   a   c 
• For rosettes arranged in the 60 pattern,
Eqn 10-16 becomes
 x  a
1
 y  2 b  2 c   a 
3
2
 xy   b   c  10 - 17 
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3 3
EXAMPLE 10.8
State of strain at pt A on bracket is measured using
the strain rosette shown. Due to the loadings, the
readings from the gauges give a = 60(10-6),
b = 135(10-6), and c = 264(10-6). Determine the
in-plane principal strains at the pt and the directions
in which they act.

EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)
Establish x axis as shown, measure the
angles counterclockwise from the +x axis
to center-lines of each gauge, we have
a = 0, b = 60, and c = 120
Substitute into Eqn 10-16,
 
60 10 6   x cos 2 0   y sin 2 0   xy sin 0 cos 0   x (1)
13510 6    x cos 2 60   y sin 2 60   xy sin 60 cos 60
 0.25 x  0.75 y  0.433 xy ( 2)
 
264 10 6   x cos 2 120   y sin 2 120   xy sin 120 cos 120
 0.25 x  0.75 y  0.433 xy (3)
EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)
Solving Eqns (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously, we get
 x  60 106    
 y  246 106  
 xy  149 106
The in-plane principal strains can also be obtained
directly from Eqn 10-17. Reference pt on Mohr’s circle
is A [60(10-6), –74.5(10-6)] and center of circle, C is on
the  axis at avg = 153(10-6).
From shaded triangle, radius is
R  153  60  74.5 10  2 2 6
R  119.2 106  
EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)
The in-plane principal strains are thus
     
1  153 106  119.2 106  272 106
 2  246106   119.2106   33.8106 
1 74.5
2 p 2  tan  38.7
153  60
 p 2  19.3
Deformed element is shown dashed.

Due to Poisson effect, element also subjected to an
out-of-plane strain, in the z direction, although this
value does not influence the calculated results.
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS
Generalized Hooke’s law

• Material at a pt subjected to a state of triaxial
stress, with associated strains.
• We use principle of superposition, Poisson’s ratio
(lat = long), and Hooke’s law ( =  E) to relate
stresses to strains, in the uniaxial direction.
• With x applied, element elongates in the x
direction and strain is this direction is
x
' x 
E


• With y applied, element contracts with a strain ‘’x
in the x direction, y
 ' ' x  
E
• Likewise, With z applied, a contraction is caused
z
in the z direction,  ' ' ' x  
E


• By using the principle of superposition,

 x   x    y   z 
1
E

1

 y   y    x   z 
E
 10 - 18

 z   z    x   y 
1
E



• If we apply a shear stress xy to the element,
experimental observations show that it will deform
only due to shear strain xy. Similarly for xz and xy,
yz and yz. Thus, Hooke’s law for shear stress and
shear strain is written as
1 1 1
 xy   xy  yz   yz  xz   xz 10 - 19
G G G

Relationship involving E, , and G

• We stated in chapter 3.7:
E
G 10 - 20
21   
• Relate principal strain to shear stress,
 xy
 max  1    10 - 21
E
• Note that since x = y = z = 0, then from Eqn
10-18, x = y = 0. Substitute into transformation
Eqn 10-19,  xy
1   max 
2
Relationship involving E, , and G

• By Hooke’s law, xy = xy/G. So max = xy/2G.
• Substitute into Eqn 10-21 and rearrange to obtain
Eqn 10-20.
Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
• Consider a volume element subjected to principal
stresses x, y, z.
• Sides of element are dx, dy and dz, and after stress
application, they become (1 + x)dx, (1 + y)dy,
(1 + z)dz, respectively.


• Change in volume of element is
V  1   x 1   y 1   z dx dy dz  dx dy dz
• Change in volume per unit volume is the
“volumetric strain” or dilatation e.
V
e  x   y  z 10 - 22
dV
• Using generalized Hooke’s law, we write the
dilatation in terms of applied stress.
1  2
e
E
x  y z  10 - 23

• When volume element of material is subjected to
uniform pressure p of a liquid, pressure is the same
in all directions.
• As shear resistance of a liquid is zero, we can
ignore shear stresses.
• Thus, an element of the body is subjected to
principal stresses x = y = z = –p. Substituting
into Eqn 10-23 and rearranging,
p E
 10 - 24
e 31  2 

• This ratio (p/e) is similar to the ratio of linear-elastic
stress to strain, thus terms on the RHS are called
the volume modulus of elasticity or the bulk
modulus. Having same units as stress with
symbol k, E
k 10 - 25
31  2 
• For most metals,  ≈ ⅓ so k ≈ E.
• From Eqn 10-25, theoretical maximum value of
Poisson’s ratio is therefore  = 0.5.
• When plastic yielding occurs,  = 0.5 is used.
IMPORTANT
• When homogeneous and isotropic material is
subjected to a state of triaxial stress, the strain in
one of the stress directions is influence by the
strains produced by all stresses. This is the result
of the Poisson effect, and results in the form of a
generalized Hooke’s law.
• A shear stress applied to homogenous and
isotropic material will only produce shear strain in
the same plane.
• Material constants, E, G and  are related
mathematically.

IMPORTANT
• Dilatation, or volumetric strain, is caused by only by
normal strain, not shear strain.
• The bulk modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a
volume of material. This material property provides
an upper limit to Poisson’s ratio of  = 0.5, which
remains at this value while plastic yielding occurs.

EXAMPLE 10.10
Copper bar is subjected to a uniform loading along its
edges as shown. If it has a length a = 300 mm, width
b = 50 mm, and thickness t = 20 mm before the load
is applied, determine its new length, width, and
thickness after application of the load.
Take Ecu = 120 GPa, cu = 0.34.

EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)
By inspection, bar is subjected to a state of plane
stress. From loading, we have
 x  800 MPa  y  500 MPa  xy  0  z  0
Associated strains are determined from generalized
Hooke’s law, Eqn 10-18;
x 
x    v   z 
EE
800 MPa 0.34
   500 MPa  0.00808
120103 MPa 120103

Associated strains are determined from generalized
y 
y    x   z 
E E
 500 MPa 0.34
  800 MPa   0.00643
120103 MPa 120103
z 
z 
E

E
x  y
0.34
0 800 MPa  500 MPa   0.00850
120103

The new bar length, width, and thickness are
a'  300 mm  0.00808300 mm   302.4 mm
b'  50 mm   0.0064350 mm   49.68 mm
t '  20 mm   0.00085020 mm   19.98 mm

EXAMPLE 10.11
If rectangular block shown is subjected to a uniform
pressure of p = 20 kPa, determine the dilatation and
change in length of each side.
Take E = 600 kPa,  = 0.45.

Dilatation
The dilatation can be determined using Eqn 10-23
with x = y = z = –20 kPa. We have
1  2
e
E
x  y z
1  20.45
 3 20 kPa 
600 kPa
 0.01 cm3 / cm3

Change in length
Normal strain on each side can be determined from

   x     y   z 
1
E

1
  20 kPa  0.45 20 kPa  20 kPa 
600 kPa
 0.00333 cm/cm

Change in length
Thus, the change in length of each side is
 a  0.003334 cm  0.0133 cm
 b  0.003332 cm  0.00667 cm
 c  0.003333 cm  0.0100 cm
The negative signs indicate that each dimension is

decreased.

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE
• When engineers design for a material, there is a

need to set an upper limit on the state of stress that
defines the material’s failure.
• For ductile material, failure is initiated by yielding.
• For brittle material, failure is specified by fracture.
• However, criteria for the above failure modes is not
easy to define under a biaxial or triaxial stress.
• Thus, four theories are introduced to obtain the
principal stresses at critical states of stress.

A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
• Most common cause of yielding of
ductile material (e.g., steel) is slipping.
• Slipping occurs along the contact
planes of randomly-ordered crystals
that make up the material.
• Edges of planes of slipping as they appear on the
surface of the strip are referred to as Lüder’s lines.
• The lines indicate the slip planes in the strip, which
occur at approximately 45 with the axis of the
strip. 28
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• The lines indicate the slip planes in
the strip, which occur at approximately
45 with the axis of the strip.
• Consider an element, determine maximum shear
stress from Mohr’s circle,
Y
 max  10 - 26
2
• Thus, in 1868, Henri Tresca
proposed the maximum-shear-stress
theory or Tresca yield criterion.
• If the two in-plane principal
stresses have the same sign,
failure will occur out of the plane:
 max
 abs 
max 2
• If in-plane principal stresses are of opposite signs,
failure occurs in the plane:
 max   min
 abs 
max 2
• Thus, we express the maximum-shear-stress
theory for plane stress for any two in-plane principal
stresses for 1 and 2 by the following criteria:
1   Y } 1,  2 have same signs.

 2  Y } 1,  2 have same signs. 10 - 27
1   2   Y } 1,  2 have opposite signs.


2. Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
• Energy per unit volume of material is called the
strain-energy density.
• Material subjected to a uniaxial stress , the
strain-energy density is written as
1
u   10 - 28
2
1 1 1
u  11   2 2   3 3
2 2 2

• For linear-elastic behavior, applying Hooke’s law
into above eqn:
1 12   2 2   32 
u   10 - 29
2 E  2 1 2  1 3   3 2 
• Maximum-distortion-energy theory is defined as the
yielding of a ductile material occurs when the
distortion energy per unit volume of the material
equals or exceeds the distortion energy per unit
volume of the same material when subjected to
yielding in a simple tension test.
• To obtain distortion energy per unit volume,
ud 
1
6E

1   2 2   2   3 2   3  1 2 
• In the case of plane stress,
ud 
1 2
3E
1  1 2   22  
• For uniaxial tension test, 1 = Y, 2 = 3 = 0
1  2
ud Y  Y
3E
• Since maximum-distortion energy theory requires
ud = (ud)Y, then for the case of plane or biaxial
stress, we have
12  1 2   22   Y 2 10 - 30

• Comparing both theories, we get the following
graph.

A. Brittle materials
3. Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
• Figure shows how brittle materials
fail.

• The maximum-normal-stress theory
states that a brittle material will fail
when the maximum principal stress
1 in the material reaches a limiting value that is
equal to the ultimate normal stress the material can
sustain when subjected to simple tension.
• For the material subjected to plane stress
1   ult
 2   ult 10 - 31
• Experimentally, it was found to be in close
agreement with the behavior of brittle materials that
have stress-strain diagrams similar in both tension
and compression.

4. Mohr’s Failure Criterion
• Use for brittle materials where the tension and
compression properties are different.
• Three tests need to be performed on material to
determine the criterion.

• Carry out a uniaxial tensile test to determine the
ultimate tensile stress (ult)t
• Carry out a uniaxial compressive test to determine
the ultimate compressive stress (ult)c
• Carry out a torsion test to determine the ultimate
shear stress ult.
• Results are plotted in Mohr circles.

• Circle A represents the stress condition 1 = 2 = 0,
3 = –(ult)c
• Circle B represents the stress condition 1 = (ult)t,
2 = 3 = 0
• Circle C represents the
pure-shear-stress condition
caused by ult.

• The Criterion can also be represented on a graph
of principal stresses 1 and 2 (3 = 0).

IMPORTANT
• If material is ductile, failure is specified by the
initiation of yielding, whereas if it is brittle, it is
specified by fracture.
• Ductile failure can be defined when slipping occurs
between the crystals that compose the material.
• This slipping is due to shear stress and the
maximum-shear-stress theory is based on this
idea.
• Strain energy is stored in a material when
subjected to normal stress.

IMPORTANT
• The maximum-distortion-energy theory depends on
the strain energy that distorts the material, and not
the part that increases its volume.
• The fracture of a brittle material is caused by the
maximum tensile stress in the material, and not the
compressive stress.
• This is the basis of the maximum-normal-stress
theory, and it is applicable if the stress-strain
diagram is similar in tension and compression.

IMPORTANT
• If a brittle material has a stress-strain diagram that
is different in tension and compression, then
Mohr’s failure criterion may be used to predict
failure.
• Due to material imperfections, tensile fracture of a
brittle material is difficult to predict, and so theories
of failure for brittle materials should be used with
caution.

*EXAMPLE 10.12
Steel pipe has inner diameter of 60 mm and outer
diameter of 80 mm. If it is subjected to a torsional
moment of 8 kN·m and a bending moment of
3.5 kN·m, determine if these loadings cause failure as
defined by the maximum-distortion-energy theory.
Yield stress for the steel found from a tension test is
Y = 250 MPa.

*EXAMPLE 10.12 (SOLN)
Investigate a pt on pipe that is subjected to a state of
maximum critical stress.
Torsional and bending moments are uniform
throughout the pipe’s length.
At arbitrary section a-a, loadings produce the stress
distributions shown.

By inspection, pts A and B subjected to same state of
critical stress. Stress at A,
Tc 8000 N  m 0.04 m 
A  
J  2  0.04 m   0.03 m 
4 4

 116.4 MPa

Mc 3500 N  m 0.04 m 
A 
I

 4 0.04 m 4  0.03 m 4 101.

9 MPa

Mohr’s circle for this state of stress has center located
at 0  101.9
 avg   50.9 MPa
2
The radius is calculated from the
shaded triangle to be R = 127.1
and the in-plane principal
stresses are
1  50.9  127.1  76.2 MPa
 2  50.9  127.1  178.0 MPa

Using Eqn 10-30, we have
12  1 2   22   Y 2
 
Is 76.22  76.2 178.0   178.02   Y 2 ?
51,100  62, 500 OK!
Since criterion is met, material within the pipe will not
yield (“fail”) according to the maximum-distortion-
energy theory.

*EXAMPLE 10.14
Solid shaft has a radius of 0.5 cm and made of steel
having yield stress of Y = 360 MPa. Determine if the
loadings cause the shaft to fail according to the
maximum-shear-stress theory and the maximum-
distortion-energy theory.

State of stress in shaft caused by axial force and
torque. Since maximum shear stress caused by
torque occurs in material at outer surface, we have
P 15 kN
σx     19.10 kN/cm 2
 191 MPa
A  0.5 cm 2
Tc 3.25 kN  cm0.5 cm 
 xy  
J  20.5 cm  4
 xy  16.55 kN/cm 2  165.5 MPa

Stress components acting on an element of material
at pt A. Rather than use Mohr’s circle, principal
stresses are obtained using stress-transformation
eqns 9-5: x  y  x   y 
2
σ1, 2       xy 2
2  2 
2
 191  0   191  0 
     165.5 2
2  2 
 95.5  191.1
σ1  95.6 MPa
σ 2  286.6 MPa
Maximum-shear-stress theory
Since principal stresses have opposite signs,
absolute maximum shear stress occur in the plane,
apply Eqn 10-27,
σ1  σ 2  σY
Is 95.6   286.6  360 ?
382.2  360 Fail!
Thus, shear failure occurs by maximum-shear-stress
theory.

Maximum-distortion-energy theory
Applying Eqn 10-30, we have
σ12  σ1σ2  σ22   σY

Is 95.6  95.6 286.6   286.6  360 ?
2 2
 2
118,677.9  129,600 OK!
However, using the maximum-distortion-energy

theory, failure will not occur. Why?

CHAPTER REVIEW
• When element of material is subjected to
deformations that only occur in a single plane, then
it undergoes plain strain.
• If the strain components x, y, and xy are known
for a specified orientation of the element, then the
strains acting for some other orientation of the
element can be determined using the plane-strain
transformation equations.
• Likewise, principal normal strains and maximum
in-plane shear strain can be determined using
transformation equations.

CHAPTER REVIEW
• Strain transformation problems can be solved
in a semi-graphical manner using Mohr’s circle.
• Establish the  and /2 axes, then compute
center of circle [(x + y)/2, 0] and controlling pt
[, /2], before plotting the circle.
• Radius of circle extends between these two pts
and is determined from trigonometry.
• Absolute maximum shear strain equals the
maximum in-plane shear strain provided the
in-plane principal strains are of opposite signs.

CHAPTER REVIEW
• If the in-plane principal strains are of same signs,
then absolute maximum shear strain will occur out
of plane and is determined from max = max/2.
• Hooke’s law can be expressed in 3 dimensions,
where each strain is related to the 3 normal stress
components using the material properties E, and ,
as seen in Eqns 10-18.
• If E and  are known, then G can be determined
using G = E/[2(1 + ].
• Dilatation is a measure of volumetric strain, and the
bulk modulus is used to measure the stiffness of a
volume of material.
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Provided the principal stresses for a material
are known, then a theory of failure can be used
as a basis for design.
• Ductile materials fail in shear, and here the
maximum-shear-stress theory or the maximum-
distortion-energy theory can be used to predict
failure.
• Both theories make comparison to the yield
stress of a specimen subjected to uniaxial
stress.

CHAPTER REVIEW
• Brittle materials fail in tension, and so the
maximum-normal-stress theory or Mohr’s
failure criterion can be used to predict failure.
• Comparisons are made with the ultimate tensile
stress developed in a specimen.

Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials-Strain Transformation 2

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10.

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 a   x cos 2  a   y sin 2  a   xy sin  a cos  a

 c   x cos 2 c   y sin 2 c   xy sin c cos c 10 - 16

• We determine the values of x, y xy by solving the

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Deformed element is shown dashed.

Generalized Hooke’s law

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Generalized Hooke’s law

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Generalized Hooke’s law

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Generalized Hooke’s law

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Relationship involving E, , and G

Relationship involving E, , and G

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Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

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The negative signs indicate that each dimension is

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• When engineers design for a material, there is a

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1   Y } 1,  2 have same signs.

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12  1 2   22   Y 2 10 - 30

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 xy  16.55 kN/cm 2  165.5 MPa

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118,677.9  129,600 OK!

However, using the maximum-distortion-energy

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